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DOGMATIC THEOLOGY
VIII

THE POHLE-PREUSS SERIES OF DOG-
MATIC TEXT-BOOKS

I. God: His Knowability, Essence and At-
tributes, vi & 479 pp., $2.00 net.

The Divine Trinity, iv & 297 pp., $1.50
net.

God the Author of Nature and the Su-
pernatural. V & 365 pp., $1.75 net.

Christology. iii & 310 pp., $1.50 net.

Soteriology. iv & 169 pp., $1 net.

Mariology. iv & 185 pp., $1 net.

Grace : Actual and Habitual, iv & 443
pp., $2 net.

8. The • Sacraments in General.
Baptism. Confirmation.

Other Volumes to Follow :

9. The Holy Eucharist. (In
preparation.)

10. The Sacrament of Penance.

11. Extreme Unction. Holy Or-
ders. Matrimony.

12. Eschatology.

2.
3-
4-

8 — II. 5 -

ca
u

(/I

THE SACRAMENTS

A DOGMATIC TREATISE

THE REVEREND JOSEPH POHLE, Ph.D., D.D.

FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF APOLOGETICS AT THE CATHOLIC

UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, NOW PROFESSOR OF DOGMA

IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BRESLAU

AUTHORIZED ENGLISH VERSION, BASED ON THE FIFTH

GERMAN EDITION, WITH SOME ABRIDGMENT

AND ADDITIONAL REFERENCES.

ARTHUR PREUSS

Volume I

1. The Sacraments in General. 2. Baptism.
3. Confirmation.

ST. LOUIS, MO., 1915

Published by B. Herder

17 South Broadway

Freiburg (Baden)
Germany

London, W. C.
68, Great Russell Str.

NIHIL OBSTAT

Sti. Ludoviciy die j, Nov. igr^

F. G. HOLWECK,

Censor Librorunt

IMPRIMA TUR

Sti. Ludovici, die j, Nov. igr^

■f Joannes J. Glennon,

A rch iepiscopu s

Sti. Ludovici

Joseph Gummersbachy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION i

Part I. The Sacraments in General 3

Ch. I. Definition, Division, and Number 3

§ I. Explanation of the Term " Sacrament " . . . . S

§ 2. Christian and Other Sacraments 18

§ 3. The Seven Sacraments of the New Testament . . 32

Ch. II. The Three Essential Constituents of a Sacrament 58
§ I. The Visible Sign, or Matter and Form .... 59
§ 2. Internal Grace, or Sacramental Effects .... 66
Art. I. Effects Common to All the Sacraments . . 66
Art. 2. The Sacramental Character Peculiar to Bap-
tism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders .... 76
§ 3. The Sacraments Instituted by Jesus Christ ... 97
Ch. III. The Efficacy of the Sacraments and Their Man-
ner of Operation 121

§ I. The Efficacy of the Sacraments ex Opere Operato 122
§ 2. Whether the Sacraments are Physical or Moral

Causes of Grace 143

Ch. IV. The Minister of a Sacrament 161

§ I. The Conditions of Valid Administration .... 162

Art. I. The Person of the Minister 162

Art. 2. Requisites of Valid Administration . . . 166

Art. 3. Necessity of a Right Intention .... 175

§ 2. The Requisites of Worthy Administration . . . 188

Ch. V. The Recipient of a Sacrament 191

§ I. The Requisites of Valid Reception 191

§ 2. The Requisites of Worthy Reception .... 200

Part II. Baptism ^^A.

Ch. I. Baptism a True Sacrament 205

§ I. Divine Institution 206

§ 2. Matter and Form 2x3

§ 3. Sacramental Effects 228

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Ch. II. The Necessity of Baptism 238

Ch. Ill, The Minister of Baptism 254

§ I. The Minister of Solemn Baptism 255

§ 2. Who Has the Power to Confer Baptism in Cases

of Emergency 259

Ch. IV. The Recipient of Baptism 265

§ I. The Requisites of Valid Reception 265

§ 2. Infant Baptism 268

Part III. Confirmation 276

Ch. I. Confirmation a True Sacrament 278

§ I. Divine Institution 278

§ 2. Matter and Form 288

§ 3. Sacramental Effects 300

Ch. II. The Obligation of Receiving Confirmation . . 304

Ch. III. The Minister of Confirmation 307

Ch. IV. The Recipient of Confirmation 314

Index 319

INTRODUCTION

The justification of the sinner, with which we
have dealt in a previous treatise/ is ordinarily not
a purely internal and invisible process or series of
acts, but requires the instrumentality of external
visible signs instituted by Jesus Christ, which
either confer grace " or augment ^ it.

Such visible means of grace are called Sacra-
ments/

The source and well-spring of all grace under
the present dispensation is the Sacrifice of the
Cross, from which redemptive power flows into
the souls of men through the Sacraments and the
Mass. This consideration led St. Thomas to re-
gard the Passion of Our Divine Saviour as the
foundation-stone of the dogmatic treatise on the
Sacraments. The importance of this treatise,
from both the theoretical and the practical point
of view, is in turn evident from the fact that the

1 Grace, Actual and Habitual, St. sense, and are therefore treated
Louis, Mo., 1915. elsewhere — prayer in moral and

2 In this sense justification is ascetic theology, sacrifice partly in
called iustificatio prima. Soteriology (cfr. Pohle-Preuss,

3 In this sense it is called iiistifi- Soteriology, pp. iii sqq.) and partly
calio sccunda. in the dogmatic treatise on the

4 Prayer and sacrifice are also Holy Eucharist, Part III, " The
nieans of grace, but in a different Holy Eucharist as a Sacrifice."

2 INTRODUCTION

grace of the Atonement cannot in the present
economy effect justification in the individual soul
without the use of the Sacraments, in re, or at
least in voto.

Following the example of the Tridentine Coun-
cil,^ modern theologians are wont to introduce
the treatise on the Sacraments with an explana-
tion of the nature, operation, and requisites of
Sacraments in general.^ Besides obviating the
need of constant repetition, this introduction
serves to show that the Sacraments are closely
connected by a common bond and constitute an or-
ganic unit.

The present volume contains, besides this gen-
eral introduction De Sacramentis in Gcnere, the
special treatises on Baptism and Confirmation.
The next volume will be devoted entirely to the
Holy Eucharist, the following one to Penance,
while a fourth will deal with Extreme Unction,
Holy Orders, and Matrimony.

5 Concilium Trident., Sess. VII, 6 " De Sacramentis in genere; "

quoted in Denzinger-Bannvvart's in German, " Allgemeine Sakra-

Enchiridion, nth ed., n. 844 sqq., mentenlehre."
Freiburg 191 1.

PART I
THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

CHAPTER I

DEFINITION, DIVISION, AND NUMBER

In this Chapter we shall first define the term
"Sacrament," then show how it has been ap-
plied to various rites in the Old and the New
Testament, and finally demonstrate that under the
New Law there are seven Sacraments, neither
more nor less.

General Readings : — Peter Lombard, Liber Sent., IV, dist i
sqq. — St. Thomas, Sumiiia Thcologica, 3a, qii. 60 sqq., and his
commentators, notably the Salmanticenses, Cicrsus TheoL, Vol.
XVIII (ed. Paris 1880) ; Billuart, De Sacramentis in Communi
(ed. Lequette, Paris, Vol. VI, pp. 97 sqq.), etc. — *Suarez, De
Sacramentis (ed. Vives, Paris 1856 sqq.). — Bcllarmine, Con-
trovers, de Sacrament, in Genere (ed. Fevre, Vol. Ill, pp. 325
sqq., Paris 1870). — Allen, De Sacramentis in Genere, etc., Ant-
werp 1576. — *M. Cano, Relectio de Sacramentis in Genere (ed.
Rome 1890). — *De Lugo, Dispntationcs de Sacramentis in Genere
(ed. Foiirnials, Vol. Ill, Paris 1892). This last-mentioned
treatise is especially thorough and valuable.

Among later writers: Drouvenius, De Re Sacramentaria contra
Perduellos Hacrcticos, Venice 1737; *Tournely, Pracl. TheoL de
Sacramentis, Paris 1739; N. Muszka, S. J., De Sacramentis Novae
Legis, Vienna 1758.

Among modern authors: Bautz, Einig, Heinrich-Huppert,

4 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

H'urter, Simar, Hunter, Wilhelm-Scannell, et al., in their re-
spective treatises on the Sacraments, and in addition to these the
fonowing :

Merlin, Traite Historiqiie et Dogmatique sur les Paroles ou
Formes des Sept Sacrements de I'Eglise, Paris 1844 (Migne,
Theol. Cursus Completus, Vol. XXI). — Besson, Les Sacrements
ou la Grace de I'Hommc-Dieu, Paris 1879. — Katschthaler, Theol.
Dogmatica Cath. Specialis, Vol. IV, Ratisbon 1884. — *Franzelin,
De Sacramentis in Genere, 4th ed., Rome 1888. — *De Augustinis,
De Re Sacramentaria, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Rome 1889. — Billot, Dc
Ecclesiac Sacramentis, Vol. I, 4th ed., Rome 1907. — P. Schanz,
Die Lehre von den Sakramenten der kath. Kirche, Freiburg 1893.
— Oswald, Die dogmatische Lchre von den hi. Sakramenten,
Vol. I, 5th ed., Miinster 1894. — *Chr. Pesch, Praelectiones Dog-
maticae, Vol.VI, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1908. — G. B. Tepe, Institidiones
Theologicae, Vol. IV, Paris 1896. — J. B. Sasse, De Sacramentis
Ecclesiae, Vol. I, Freiburg 1897. — Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dog-
matische Theologic, Vol. IX, Mainz 1901. — H. Lahousse, S. J.,
De Sacramentis in Genere, etc., Bruges 1900. — A. Paquet, De
Sacramentis, Vol. I, Quebec 1900. — Scheeben-Atzberger, Dogma-
tik. Vol. IV, Part 2, Freiburg 1901. — Noldin, De Sacramentis,
Innsbruck 1901. — N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente der kath. Kirche,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1902. — G. van Noort, De Sacramentis,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., Amsterdam 1910. — P. Pourrat, La Thcologie
Sacramentaire, 4th ed., Paris 1910 (English tr., Theology of
the Sacraments, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1914). — D. J. Kennedy, art.
"Sacraments," in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII. — W.
Humphrey, S. J., The One Mediator, London 1890. — A. Devine,
C. P., The Sacraments Explained, 3rd ed., London 1905.

N'on-Catholic authors worth consulting are : Hahn, Die Lehre
von den Sakramenten in Hirer geschichtlichcn En-tzvicklnng in-
ncrhalb der abendldndischen Kirche bis zum Konzil von Tricnt,
Breslau 1864, and Alex. Maltzew, Die Sakramente der orthodox-
katholischen Kirche des Morgenlandes, Berlin 1898.

*) The asterisk before an author's name indicates that his treatment of
the subject is especially clear and thorough. As St. Thomas is invariably
the best guide, the omission of the asterisk before his name never means
that vi'e consider his work inferior to that of other vi'riters. There are
vast stretches of theology which he scarcely touched.

SECTION I

EXPLANATION OF THE TERM "sACRAMENT"

I. Derivation and History of the Term. —
"Sacrament" is a word of Latin origin. It is de-
rived from sacrare ^ and denotes a thing wliich
produces holiness — a means of sanctification.

The concept sacramentum was enriched by the
inclusion in it of the Greek t^vaT^piov^ (from /*^'w, to
shut the mouth or eyes), and thus came to denote
a thing both sacred and mysterious.^

Such sacred and mysterious things were: (a)
venerable objects, as the truths of religion,^
and especially (b) signs directing men to God, as,
for instance, the types employed in the Old Testa-
ment.^

This usage was adopted by the Fathers ^ and re-
tained by the early Schoolmen,^ even after the
term "Sacrament" had come to be technically re-
stricted to "a definite number of sensible signs
of sanctification, given to man by Christ, who has

1 As testamcntum from testari, 4 Cfr. Tcrtilllian, Contra Mar-
linimentum from linire, etc. cion., V, 4.

2 Res sacra et arcana. 5 E. g., St. Augustine.

8 Cfr. Eph. I, 9. Ill, 3 sqq.; Col. 0 £. g., Hugh of St. Victor.

I, 27; I Tim. Ill, 16.

6 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

annexed to the due use of these signs the power
of working that which they signify." '^

The usage mentioned was common aHke to pro-
fane and ecclesiastical literature. Thus, in the
early days of Rome, when a lawsuit was brought,
the parties were often bound to deposit a sum of
money with the priests, and that portion of it for-
feited by the loser was called sacr amentum,
i. e. res sacra, and employed to provide sacrifices
for the gods. The Romans used the word sacra-
mentum also to denote a solemn engagement, es-
pecially a soldier's military oath of allegiance.
Tertullian no doubt had this particular usage
in mind when he referred to the baptismal
vow as a sacramentum in the sense of a
sacred obligation entered into under the sanction
of an oath.^ Since whatever is sacred has refer-
ence to the Deity, and the Deity is of its very na-
ture mysterious, the term sacramenUmi gradually
came to include the various meanings of the
Greek word i^vcT^piov, Hence the indiscriminate
use of sacramentum and mysterium in the Vul-
gate ^ and the ancient liturgies. St. Augustine
read in his Itala Bible: "Si sciero omnia sacra-
menta" (i Cor. XIII, 2), where our Vulgate has:
"Si noverim mysteria omnia."

7Cfr. S. J. Hunter, S. J., Out- 9 E. g., Tob. XII, 7: "Sacra-
lines of Dogmatic Theology, Vol. vientntn regis abscondcre bonum
III, pp. 167 sq. est."

8De Idol., c. 6, 19.

THE TERM "SACRAMENT"

The words sacramenta and iiiysferia were fur-
ther applied indiscrimmately to symbols or signs
representative of the "holy mysteries," that is to
say, all sacred usages and ceremonies, even such
as were not sacramental rites in the technical
sense. Thus St. Augustine in his sermons speaks
of the "Sacrament of the Lord's Prayer." ^^ In
the Eleusinian Mysteries the term p-varripia was ap-
plied both to doctrines and rites.^^

From this vague and indefinite usage it follows
that not every rite called sacramentum in the
primitive Church was necessarily a Sacrament in
the later and more precise sense of the term. To
understand what is meant in each case we must
carefully attend to the context. Thus, for in-
stance, it would be a mistake to attempt to prove
from St. Paul's phrase "magnum sacramentum/'
that he regarded Matrimony as a Sacrament.
The Apostle simply meant to say that it is a great
mystery.^^ Similarly the Fathers and early ec-
clesiastical writers employ the term Sacrament
very loosely, as may be gathered from the fact

10 Serm,, 228, n. 3: " Sermonem
ad altare Dei debemus hodie infan-
tibus de sacramento altaris. Trac-
tavimus ad eos de sacramento
symboli, quod credere debeant,
iractavimus de sacramento orationis
dominicae, quomodo petant, et de
sacramento fontis ct baptismi."

11 The rite of initiation, Phallic
worship, etc. On the mysteries of
the Mithraic cult, which the Ro-

mans got from Persia, see Blotzer,
"Das heidnische Mysterienwescn
zur Zeit der Entstehung des Cliri-
stentums," in the Stimmcn aus
Maria-Laach, 1906, 1907. On the
mysteries of Eleusis cfr. P. Foucart,
Lcs Mystdres d'Eleusis, Paris 19 14.
12 For further information on this
point cfr. the dogmatic treatise on
Matrimony.

8 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

that Tertullian ^^ refers to the Gnostic systems as
"sacramenta haereticaruni idearum," while St.
Augustine repeatedly applies the term to the ex-
ternal worship of God and to sacrifice in general.^^
It was reserved for the Schoolmen, notably Peter
Lombard and St. Thomas, to define the term
Sacrament, and to restrict its use to certain
rites.^^

2. Definition of a Sacrament in the Re-
stricted Sense of the Term. — Generally speak-
ing, a Sacrament is, as we have seen, "a symbol of
a sacred and mysterious thing." Now, as there
exists a vast number of such symbols that are
not Sacraments in the technical sense, it is nec-
essary to eliminate from the formal definition of
the term all those which do not refer to man's
personal sanctification. Only the visible signs
of internal sanctification are called Sacraments
in the proper sense.^*^ To distinguish the Sac-
raments of the Old Testament from the far
more excellent and effective ones of the New,
we must add, as a characteristic mark of the

13 Contra Marcion., I, 13. crificii sacramentum, i. e. sacrum

li Ad Marcellin., ep. 138, n. 7: signum est."

" Signa, quum ad res divinas per- 15 Cfr. Pourrat, La Theologie

tinent, sacramcnta vocantur." — Sacramentaire, pp. 1-46, Paris 1910.

Contra Faust., XIX, 11: "In (English td.. Theology of the Sacra-

nullum nomen religionis sen veriim ments, 2nd edition, pp. 1-47. St.

sen falsum coagulari homines pos- Louis 1914).

stmt, nisi aliquo signaculoritm vel 16 Petrus Lomb., Sent,, IV, dist.

sacramcntorum visibilium, consortia 1: " Sacram,entutn est invistbilis

colligentur." — De Civ. Dei, X, 5 : gratiae \_sanctificantis'\ visibilis

" Sacrificium visibile invisibilis sa- forma,"

THE TERM "SACRAMENT" 9

latter, that they not only signify but actually
confer grace. Hence Peter Lombard's famous
definition: ''Sacramentum proprie id dicitur
quod ita est signwn gratiae Dei et invisihilis
gratiae forma, ut ipsius imaginem gerat et causa
existat," or, more concisely, "Sacramcfitum est
signum efficax gratiae sanctiUcantis," — a Sacra-
ment is an efficacious sign of sanctifying
grace.

a) The note of "personal sanctification" eliminates a
multitude of signs or symbols which were formerly in-
cluded in the term Sacrament, e. g., such Old Testament
types as the passage of the Israelites through the Red
Sea, the brazen serpent, the manna, and in general all
those signs, rites, symbols, and ceremonies which had for
their chief purpose the glorification of God rather than
the sanctification of man, for example, the sacrifices of
the Old Law, the Mass, the physical universe as a mani-
festation of the Creator's greatness, and so forth.^''
Similarly, the dove as a symbol of the Holy Ghost, the
Bible, images of the saints, the sign of the cross, are in-
deed signa rei sacrae, but not Sacraments, because they
signify or symbolize something else than the sanctification
of the soul. Even among the sensible signs of interior
sanctification, only those are truly Sacraments that were
permanently instituted for this purpose by God Himself.
Such was, for instance, circumcision under the Old Law,
such is Baptism under the New. By this criterion we
must eliminate merely transient rites, as the communica-
tion of the Holy Spirit by breathing, etc.^^ To exclude

iTCfr. Ps, XVin, I. isCfr. John XX, 22,

lo THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

from the definition of a Sacrament a number of rites or
signs that are merely sacramentals, it is necessary to
emphasize with De Lugo ^^ that a true sacrament not only
signifies but actually causes interior sanctification. In the
complete and perfect sense this is true only of the seven
Sacraments of the New Law.

b) As there were undoubtedly true Sacra-
ments, though of an inferior order, under the Old
Law, we must find some note by which to dis-
tinguish the Sacraments of the Christian dispen-
sation from those of the Ancient Covenant, and
elaborate a generic definition applicable to both
classes.

The existence of Sacraments under the Old Law may
be deduced from the constant belief of the Fathers ^°
and Scholastics,"^ and especially from the positive teach-
ing of the Church. The Council of Trent defines : " If
anyone saith that these Sacraments of the New Law do
not differ from the Sacraments of the Old Law, save that
the ceremonies are different, and different the outward
rites, let him be anathema." -^ It is not easy to formulate
a generic definition that will fully answer the require-
ments laid down. According to the exposition of doc-
trine drawn up by Eugene IV for the Armenian delegates
at the Council of Florence, A. D. 1439, the essential differ-
ence between the Sacraments of the Old and those of the
New Testament consists in this that the former merely

19 De Sacramentis, disp. i, sect. 2. dixerit, ea ipsa Novae Legis sa-

20 Cfr. St. Augustine, Contra cramenta a sacramentis antiquae
Faust., XIX, II. Legis non differre nisi quia cacri-

21 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa moniae sunt aliae ct ritus alii, ana-
Theol., la 2ae, qu. 102, art. 5. thema sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart,

22 Sessio VII, can. 2: "Si quis n. 84s).

THE TERM "SACRAMENT" ii

symbolize, or prophetically typify, sanctifying grace,
whereas the latter '' contain " and actually " confer " it.-^
In other words, the distinguishing characteristic of the
Sacraments of the New Law is the efUcacia signi, that of
the Sacraments of the Old Law, the ineMcacia signi. But
if the Sacraments of the Ancient Covenant were ineffica-
cious signs, — if they did not somehow truly effect or
convey grace, how can they be called Sacraments ? Holy
Scripture makes a distinction between a twofold sanctity,
the legal " sanctity of the flesh," -* and the theological
" sanctity of the spirit." ^^ The Sacraments of the Old
Law foreshadowed but did not of themselves (ex op ere
opcrato) confer "theological sanctity," i. e. sanctify-
ing grace, but they actually conferred " legal sanc-
tity," and in so far at least were endowed with the
necessary causality or eificacia signi. They were efficaci-
ous signs of legal sanctity in the present, and inefficacious
signs of theological sanctity for the future, and conse-
quently types or models of the Sacraments of the New
Testament. To exercise this twofold function they had
been instituted by God Himself as a permanent institution,
to last till the coming of the Messias. This distinction
enables us to formulate an adequate generic definition as
follows : " A Sacrament is a visible sign of sanctity,
instituted by God, the efficaciousness of which is deter-
mined by the particular economy of grace to which it
belongs." ~^

23"Noz'ae Legis sacrantenta 2i Sanctitas Icgalis sen carnis.

multuin a sacramcntis differunt anti- 25 Sanctitas theologica sen gratia

quae Legis; ilia enim non causa- sanctificans.

bant gratiam, sed earn solum per 20 On the question whether this

passionem Christi dandain esse definition applies in exactly the same

figurabant, haec vera nostra et con- sense or only analogically to the

tinent gratiam et ipsain digne sus- Sacraments of both Testaments, see

cipientibus conferunt." (Denzinger- BellarmiDC, De Sacramcntis, I, 12.
Bannwart, n. 695).

12 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

3. Theological Discussion of the Defini-
tion.— The important part played by the word
"sign" in both the specific and the generic defini-
tion of a Sacrament, makes it necessary to ex-
plain the meaning of that term.

a) A sign (signum, arjixelov) is some thing, the knowl-
edge of which leads to the knowledge of some other
thing. There are here two distinct elements. The ma-
terial element is " some thing known ; " the formal ele-
ment, the aptitude of the material to convey " the knowl-
edge of some other thing as yet unknown."

" A sign," says St. Augustine, " is a thing which, over
and above the impression it makes on the senses, causes
something else to come into the mind as a consequence
of itself ; as when we see a footprint, we conclude that
an animal, whose footprint this is, has passed by; and
when we see smoke, we know that there is fire beneath." ^^
For the purposes of the present treatise we may disregard
visible signs of visible things ^^ and invisible signs of
invisible things,'^ and concentrate our attention on the vis-
ible signs of invisible things.

b) Signs may be divided according to the point of
view from which they are regarded.

a) Between a sign and the thing it signifies there must
be some connection. This connection may either arise
from the nature of the two, independently of any free-will
act, or it may be purely conventional. Thus it is owing to

27 De Doctrina Ckrist., II, i : 28 Such as foot-prints, images of

" Signum est res practcr speciem, saints, etc.

quam ingerit sensibns, aliud aliquid 29 E. g., peace of mind as an in-

ex se faciens in cogitationem venire, dication of the state of grace, the

sicut vestigio visa transiisse animal sacramental character conferred by

cuius vestigium est cogitamus et Baptism, etc.
fumo visa ignem subesse cognosci-
mus."

DEFINITION OF A SACRAMENT 13

the very nature of things that there should be fire where
there is smoke, and vice versa; smoke is therefore the nat-
ural sign of fire. A purely conventional sign bears
no innate relation to the nature of things, but originates
in an arbitrary act of one person, which is subsequently
recognized by others.

To which of these two classes do the Sacraments be-
long? They are not purely natural signs of invisible
grace because their signification is owing to a free act of
God. Nor can they be regarded as purely conventional
or arbitrary signs because between the sacramental rite
and its effects there is a striking similarity, which results
in a sort of affinity between the symbol and the thing
symbolized. In other words, the Sacraments are arbi-
trary but at the same time deeply significant signs of
grace. It was this observation which led St. Augustine
to say: "If the Sacraments did not possess some kind
of resemblance to the things which they signify, they
would not be Sacraments." ^°

Cardinal Bellarmine ^^ divides signs, according to their
origin, into three classes : ( i ) Those which signify some
thing by nature, regardless of any act of the free-will
(e. g. footprints, photographs) ; (2) those which origi-
nate entirely in the free-will of the inventor and are
strictly conventional {e. g. signals, the ringing of a bell) ;
(3) those which involve what may be called an obvious
symbolism {e. g. the sign of the cross). It is to this
last-mentioned category that the Sacraments belong. Be-
ing naturally adapted to symbolize interior grace, they
have been chosen to perform this office and formally in-
stituted for this purpose by Christ. Thus the external

ZO Ep., 98, 9 (ad Bonifac): "Si sunt, non hahcrcnt, omnino non
sacramenta qiiandam similititdincm esscnt sacramcnta.'"
earum rcrum, quartim sacramenta 31 De Sacramentis, I, 9.

14 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ablution in Baptism fitly symbolizes the cleansing of the
soul from sin ; Holy Communion under the species of
bread and wine is an apt symbol of the spiritual nourishing
of the soul, and so forth.

/8) Another classification, important for our purpose,
is that into speculative and practical signs. A speculative
sign symbolizes that which it signifies (e. g. the national
flag, an image), while a practical sign both symbolizes and
effects it. Thus the act of handing over the keys of a
fortress to the general of an invading army not only
symbolizes the surrender of the stronghold, but actually
puts it into effect. From what has been said about the
essential distinction between the Sacraments of the Old
and those of the New Testament, it is evident that the
Sacraments are not merely speculative but practical signs.
This is true of the " weak and needy elements " of the Old
Covenant,^^ and, in a still higher sense, of the Sacraments
of the New Testament.

y) Signs may also be divided with respect to past,
present, or future events. A sign that refers to some past
event is called in Scholastic terminology signiim re-
memorativum. To this category belong paintings repre-
senting battles, commemoratory medals, etc. A sign that
refers to some present happening is called signum
demonstrativum. Such is, for example, the hoisting of
a flag to signify the presence of a ruler. A sign that
points to some future occurrence is called signum pro-
gnosticum (e. g. the blowing of a whistle to announce the
impending arrival or departure of a train). The sacra-
mental signs of the New Testament belong to all three of
these categories. They recall the Passion of Our Lord
Jesus Christ, they symbolize sanctifying grace as here and
now present in the soul, and they foretell the future glory

32 Gal. IV, 9.

DEFINITION OF A SACRAMENT 15

of the elect. This teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas ^^
and of practically all other Catholic theologians has been
adopted into the Roman Catechism.^* Its truth can be
clearly demonstrated from Scripture. Of Baptism, St.
Paul teaches : ( i ) that " we are baptized in J esus Christ,
in his death " ; ^^ (2) that by virtue of this Sacrament " we
walk in newness of life; " ^® and (3) that Baptism makes
us like Christ, as in death, so also in the resurrection.^^
Holy Communion " shows the death of the Lord " in the
past,^^ confers spiritual life in the present,^^ and guaran-
tees resurrection " in the last day." '*°

For the other five Sacraments this threefold significa-
tion cannot be proved with the same convincingness, but
it is virtually included in the indisputable Scriptural
truth that the present reception of any one of them
postulates as its meritorious cause the Passion of Christ,
which is an event of the past, and carries within itself
as a reward the future glory of Heaven. Note, how-
ever, that the sacramental signs are always primarily signa
demonstrativa and only secondarily signa rememorativa
and prognostica. This is owing to the fact that the Sac-
raments by their very nature must produce that which
they signify, i. e. sanctifying grace here and now present in
the soul, because it is sanctifying grace that they ac-
tually effect, whereas they merely signify the Passion
of Christ and the glory of Heaven, the former as an in-
dispensable requisite, the latter as a promise and a guar-
anty.

8) In this connection the Fathers and Catholic theo-
logians are wont to enlarge on a truth of great speculative

33 Summa Tkeologica, 3a, qu. 60, 37 Rom. VI, 5.

art. 3. 38 Cfr. i Cor. XI, 26.

^iCat. Rom., V. II, cap. i, n. 12. 39 Cfr. Jolin VI, 57.

35 Rom. VI, 3. 40 John VI, 55-
30 Rom. VI, 4.

i6 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

importance with reference to the intrinsic relation be-
tween the Sacraments of the Old and those of the New
Testament and between the latter and the glory of
Heaven or eternal beatitude. As the ancient Synagogue
was merely a type foreshadowing the Church, they say, so
the New Covenant is but a type prefiguring the
Heavenly Jerusalem, where we shall behold God as He
is, without sign or symbol. This idea is intimated by St.
Paul when he says in his Epistle to the Hebrews : " For
the law having a shadow of the good things to come, not
the very image of things." *^ In other words, the New
Testament, too, is but a " shadow " and an " image " of
" things " which shall not be unveiled to our eyes until
we are in Heaven. St. Ambrose succinctly expresses
this truth as follows : " A shadow in the law, an image
in the Gospel, truth in Heaven." *^ The relation of the
two Testaments with their respective Sacraments to the
beatific vision of God in Heaven has been beautifully
described by St. Bruno of Asti , who says : " The first
tabernacle, therefore, is the Synagogue; the second, the
Church ; the third. Heaven. . , . The first was in a
shadow and an image, the second is in an image and in
truth, and the third [will be] in the truth alone. In the
first, life is foreshadowed ; in the second it is given ; in the
third it is possessed." *^ This teaching was adopted by
the Scholastics. " There is a threefold state for men,"
says St. Thomas ; " the first is that of the Old Law, . . .

41 Heb. X, I : " Umhrani (aKidp) tabcrnaciilum est Synagoga, secttn-

enim habens lex futurorum bonoruin dum Ecclesia, iertium caelum. . . .

[jCiV. N. T.], non ipsam imaginem Primum in umbra fuit et figura,

rerum (ovk aVTTjv ttjv eiKova ruu secundum in figura est et veritate,

TrpayfiaTuv)." tcrtium [erifl in veritate sola. In

i^ In Ps., 38, n. 25: " Umbra in primo ostenditur vita, in secundo

Lege, imago vero in Evangelic, datur, in tertio possidetur." St.

Veritas in coelestibus." Bruno of Asti was Bishop of Segni

43 Horn., 34: "Primum igitur and died A. D. 1123.

DEFINITION OF A SACRAMENT

the second that of the New Law, ... the third follows
not in this, but in the future life, i. e. in the fatherland.
But as the first of these states is figurative and imperfect
with regard to the state of the Gospel, so this latter is
figurative and imperfect with regard to the state of our
eternal home, by which it will be supplanted." •**

c) There is a final though less important distinction
between sensible and insensible signs. The former are
in some manner perceptible by the senses, while the latter
can be recognized only by immaterial beings. Sensible
signs are, e. g., peace of mind, as indicative of the state
of sanctifying grace, the sacramental character imprinted
by Baptism, etc. The sacramental signs are all sensible.
When a sick man is anointed with holy oil, this can be
seen with the eyes; when absolution is pronounced
in the tribunal of Penance, this can be heard with
the ears ; when a person receives Holy Communion, he
can perceive the Sacrament with several senses simul-
taneously.

Ockam "^^ held that, absolutely speaking, God might
have attached sacramental efficacy to a purely spiritual
and immaterial sign, such as " contemplative prayer " or
" meditation on the Passion," — a view combated by
Bellarmine for the convincing reason that a Sacrament,
by its very definition, is connected with an external rite,
i. e. a sensible sign of some kind.^'^

H Sit mm a TheoL, la 2ae, qii. io6,
art. 4, ad I : " Triplex est hominum
status. Primus quidcm Veteris
Legis, . . . sccundus Novae Legis,
. . . tertiiis status succedit non in
hoc vita, scd in futitra, sail, in
patria. Sed sicut primus status est
figuralis ct imperfectus respectu
Evangelii, ita hie status est figura-
lis et imperfectus respectu status
patriae, quo veniente iste status
ei'acuatur." Cfr. Fraiizelin, Dc Sa-
cramentis in Gcncrc, 4th ed., thes.

2; N. C.ilir, Die hi. Sakramente dcr
katholischen Kirchc, Vol. I, 2nd ed.,
pp. 27 sqq., Freiburg 1902.

40 Comment, in Quatuor Libras
Sent., IV, dist. i.

40 Ijellarmine, De Sacramcntis, I,
9. On the subject of this entire
Section the student may profitably
consult C. Oriou, Etude Historique
sur la Notion du Sacrement depuis
la Fin du, I"" Sii^clc jusqn'au
Concile de Trente, Montauban 1899.

SECTION 2

CHRISTIAN AND OTHER SACRAMENTS

Catholic theologians distinguish four different states
through which the human race has successively passed:
(i) The state of original justice in Paradise; (2) the
state of the law of nature; (3) the state of the Mosaic
Law, and (4) the state of the New Covenant. Each
of these states has its own peculiar means of grace.

I. The Quasi-Sacraments of Paradise. —
Whether there were true Sacraments in the state
of original innocence enjoyed by our first parents
in Paradise, is a disputed question. The major-
ity of theologians, following St. Thomas, take
the negative, while a respectable minority main-
tain the positive side.

The Angelic Doctor argues that mankind required no
means of sanctification in a state which was of itself
holy. " In the state of innocence," he says, " man needed
no sacraments, whether as remedies against sin or as
means of perfecting the soul." ^

Bellelli and others contend that the Tree of Life " and
Marriage ^ might properly be called Sacraments. These

1 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 61, art. etiam inquantum ipsa ordinantur ad
2: '"In statu innocentiae homo animae perfectionem."
sacramentis non indigebat, non 2 " Sacramcntum arboris vitae,"

solum inquantum sacramenta ordi- 3 " Sacramentum matrimonii."

nantur ad remedium peccati, scd

PRE-CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS

writers appeal in support of their view to St. Augustine,
who ascribes to the Tree of Life the miraculous im-
mortality of the body as well as the communication of
supernatural wisdom/ and describes the union of Adam
and Eve as a pattern of the mystic union between Christ
and His Church.^ But there is no conclusive proof that
St. Augustine regarded these two institutions as Sacra-
ments in the technical sense of the term. The element of
personal sanctification, so essential to the notion of a
Sacrament, is not sufficiently evident in either, and, be-
sides, the great Bishop of Hippo probably used the word
" Sacrament " in its wider meaning of signum rei sa-
crae.^

For the rest, St. Thomas did not deny that the mar-
riage of our first parents in Paradise was a true type
of Christ's union with His Church. " Matrimony," he
says, " was instituted in the state of innocence, not as a
Sacrament, but for a function of nature. In regard to
what followed, however, it foreshadowed something in
relation to Christ and the Church, just as everything else
foreshadowed Christ." ^

2. The State of the Law of Nature. — The
status legis naturae, (not to be confounded with
the status naturae purae),^ comprises that long

4 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Gcnesi ad
Lit., VIII, 6: " lllud quoque addo,
quamquam corporalem cibum, talent
tatnen illam arborem praestitisse,
qua corpus hominis sanitate stabili
firmaretur, non sicul ex alio cibo,
sed nonnuUa inspirations salubritatis
occulta." — Ibid., XI, 40: " lArbor
vitae"] sacramentum visibile invisi-
bilis sapientiae."

OL. c, VIII, 4.

6 V. supra. Sect. I, No. i.

7 Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 61, art.
2: " Matrimonium fuit institutum
in slatu mnocentiae non secundum
quod est sacramentum, sed secun-
dum quod est ofRcium naturae. In
consequenti tamen aliquid significa-
bat futurum circa Christum et Ec-
clesiam, sicut et omnia alia quae
in figura Christi praecesserunt."

8 On the status naturae purac see

20 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

interval between the fall of our first parents and
the enactment of the Mosaic dispensation, during
which men were subject to no other law than
that of nature, ''written in their hearts." ^ The
state of the law of nature, under the influence of
the redemptive grace of Christ promised in the
Protogospel, was a supernatural state, and may be
divided into two epochs. The first of these, from
Adam to Abraham, had a ''Sacrament of Na-
ture ;" ^*^ the second, from Abraham to Moses,
possessed a true Sacrament of regeneration in the
rite of circumcision.^^

a) It is theologically certain, and admitted by
all Catholic divines, that from Adam to Moses
mankind possessed a Sacrament of Nature.

a) To deny this would be to except the infants born
during that epoch from the divine will to save, which, as
we have demonstrated in our treatise on Grace, is uni-
versal.^- If God wills to save all men without exception,
there must have been some means by which the infants
of the pre-Mosaic period could be cleansed of original sin.
The Fathers were firmly convinced of the existence of
such a sacramentum naturae. St, Augustine repeatedly
insists on its necessity.^^ Suarez states the position of the
Schoolmen thus : " It is impious and repugnant to the
universal tradition and sentiment of the Church, to hold

Pohle-Preuss, God the Author of 12 Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and

Nature and the Supernatural, pp. Habitual, pp. 153 sqq.

226 sqq., St. Louis 1912. 13 Cfr., e. g.. Contra lulian., V,

9 Rom. II, 15. II, 45: " Nee tanien credendum est,

10 " Sacramentum naturae." et ante datam circumcisionem

11" Sacramentum circumcision is." famulos Dei, quandoquidem eis in-

PRE-CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS

that, under the natural law as well as under the law of
Moses, infants were without a remedy against original
sin, and that consequently all who died before attaining
to the use of reason, were damned." ^*

/?) The exact character of this sacramentum naturae
is a matter of conjecture. All that can be said with any
degree of certainty is: (i) As a medium of regenera-
tion, the Sacrament of Nature must have been based in
some way on belief in the future Redeemer, because
" there is no other name under heaven given to men
whereby we must be saved." ^^ (2) This faith in the
Messias most probably found expression in a prayer and
was symbolized by a visible sign.^® (3) As no one but
God can cleanse the soul of original sin, the " Natural
Sacrament " of the pre-Abrahamic period must have
been instituted by Him, at least in substance, though He
may have left the determination of its form and the
selection of the grace-conferring symbols to the free
choice of men. St. Thomas' view of the matter may
be gathered from the following passage in the Smnma:
" It is probable that believing parents ofifered up some
prayer to God for their children, especially if these were
in any danger, or bestowed on them some blessing, as a
seal of faith; just as the adults offered prayers and sacri-
fices for themselves." ^'^ These three requisites are suf-

eral mcdiatoris fides, nulla Sacra-
mento eius ot'itulatos fuisse parvulis
suis; qtianivis quid illud esset, aliqua
necessaria causa Scriptura latere
vohiit." Other Patristic passages
bearing on this subject will be found
in Vasquez's Comment, in Quatuor
Libros Sent., Ill, disp. 165, cap. i.
14 De Sacramentis, disp. 10, sect.
i: "Tarn in lege naturae quam
Moysis omnes infantes fuisse
relictos sine remedio peccati ori-

ginalis atque adeo omnes, qui mortui
sunt ante tisum rationis, damnatos
fuisse, impium est sentire et contra
communeni ecclesiae traditionem et
sensum." Cfr. De Lugo, De Sacra-
mentis, disp. 3, sect. 2.

IS Acts IV, 12.

10 This is the common opinion of
theologians, including St. Thomas
{Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 61, art. 3),
against Ronaventure and Vasquez.

17 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 70,

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ficlent to constitute a Sacrament in the generic sense of the
term.

It is much more difficult, nay practically impossible,
to decide whether, in the state of the natural law, there
were also Sacraments for adult persons. The Thom-
ists ^® think there were several, while other theologians ^^
reject this assumption, on the ground that for the state
of the natural law God provided only what was absolutely
necessary, and Sacraments were not necessary because
adults could obtain forgiveness of sin by an act of
perfect contrition.

It is to be noted that for the heathen and the female
children of the Israelites the economy of grace which
existed in the status legis naturae remained in force
even after the proclamation of the law of circumcision. ^"^

b) At the time of Abraham, long before the
promulgation of the Mosaic law, circumcision be-
came the ordinary means of spiritual regenera-
tion. This rite has all the characteristics of a
true Sacrament.

a) God promulgated the law in these words : " This
is my covenant which you shall observe, between me and
you, and thy seed after thee: all the male kind of you
shall be circumcised; and you shall circumcise the flesh
of your foreskin, that it may be for a sign of the cove-

art. 4: " Probabile est quod
parentes fideles pro parvulis natis et
maxime in periculo existentibus
aliquas Deo preces funderent vel
aliquam benedictionem eis adhi-
berent, quod erat aliquod signaculum
fidei, sicut adulti pro seipsis preces
et sacrificia offerebant."

18 E, g., Gonet, basing on St.

Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 65,
art. I, ad 7.

19 Notably Suarez, Vasquez, and
De Lugo.

20 On the probable nature of the
Sacramentum nnttirae, cfr. Franze-
lin, De Sacramentis in Genere, thes.
3, and De Augustinis, De Re Sa-
cramentaria, Vol. 1, 2nd ed., pp. 17
sqq., Rome 1889.

PRE-CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS

nant between me and you. An infant of eight days old
shall be circumcised among you. . . . The male whose
flesh of his foreskin shall not be circumcised, that soul
shall be destroyed out of his people, because he hath
broken my covenant." -^ Here circumcision is plainly
made a conditio sine qua non of salvation. As no one can
be saved unless he is cleansed of original sin, circumcision
was obviously an instrument of regeneration. This is the
opinion of St. Thomas,-^ and though it is disputed by
Vasquez, Tournely, and Bellarmine,-^ Suarez rightly
maintains that the teaching of the Angelic Doctor on this
head cannot be denied " without a certain degree of tem-
erity," especially in view of Pope Innocent Ill's declara-
tion against the Cathari,-* that " Original sin was for-
given and the danger of damnation avoided by the mys-
tery of the circumcision."

The rite of circumcision was truly sacramental : an ex-
ternal sign, accompanied by internal grace, instituted by
God for the remission of sin. The Fathers and Scho-
lastics could not have regarded circumcision as the type of
Baptism, had they not believed it to be a real Sacrament.^^

(3) In what manner did circumcision remit original sin?

21 Gen. XVII, 10 sqq.: "Hoc
est pactum meum, quod observabitis
inter me et vos et semen tuum post
te: circumcidetur ex vobis omne
masculinum et circuincidctis carnem
praeputii vcstri, ut sit in signum
foederis inter me et vos. Infans
octo dicrum circumcidetur in vobis
. . . Mascuhis, cuius praeputii caro
ctrcumcisa non fucrit, dclebitur
anima ilia de populo suo, quia pac-
tum meum irrittim fecit."

22 Cfr. Sumwa TIicol., 3a, qu.
70, art. 4: " Ab omnibus co)nmtini-
ter ponitur, quod in circumcisione
peccatum originate rcmittcbatur."

23 £><? Sacramentis, II, 17.

24 Decret., L. Ill, tit. 42, c. 3,
"Maiores:" " Originalis culpa re-
mittebatur per circumcisionis myste-
ritim et damnationis periculum vita-
batur."

25 Cfr. Col. II, 11: " circtimcisio
Christi." See St. Augustine, De
Anima, II, 11, 15: " Circumcisio
fuit illius temporis sacramentum,
quod figurabat nostri temporis bap-
tismum." For a more extended ar-
gument see De Augustinis, De Re
Sacramentaria, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp.
29 sqq., and Hugo Weiss, Die mes-
sianischcn Vorbildcr im Alien
Testament, pp. 58 sqq., Freiburg
1905.

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

In adults, no doubt, through the instrumentality of jus-
tifying faith (fides formata), and consequently "by the
work of the worker" {ex opere operantis). But how
about infants? This question is intimately connected
with another, on which theologians disagree, vis.: How
do circumcision and Baptism differ in regard to their mode
of operation? It will prove helpful to review the varying
opinions on these two points.

(i) The Scotists contend that circumcision wiped out
original sin " by the work wrought " {ex opere o pernio), ^^
but that it was not on the same level with Baptism be-
cause it did not confer an equal measure of holiness nor
an immediate claim to Heaven.^^ In support of this con-
tention, Scotus and his followers appeal to the authority
of St. Augustine, who says that circumcision supplied
the place of Baptism among the Jews,"^ and they also

26 " There is a famous phrase
which is employed to express con-
cisely the Catholic doctrine: the Sac-
raments are said to work ' by the
work wrought.' This is opposed to
the doctrine that their effect comes
about ' by the work of the worker '
' — ex opere operato, ex opere operan-
tis. Some half-learned Latin gram-
marians maintain that the first
phrase ought to be translated, ' by
the work that works.' These critics
forget that every word means that
which it is intended to mean by
him who uses it; and even on their
narrow ground of Latin grammar
they are wrong, for there are plenty
of cases where the participle of a
deponent verb is used passively, as
may be seen in any good dictionary.
(See dominor, ulciscor, etc.). This
very word operatiim is so employed
by Lactantius {De Instit. Divin., vii,
27; P. L., 6, 819), and by St. Am-
brose (.De Incarn., c. 9, n. 95 ; P,

L., 16, 841), so that the theological
use does not involve a blunder in
an elementary point of grammar.
The phrase . . . opus operatum
seems to have been first used by
Peter of Poitou, a writer of the
twelfth century {Sent., p. 5, c. 6;
P. L., 211, 1235); ... it made its
way into the common language of
theology, partly through the influ-
ence of Pope Innocent III, who saw
how aptly it expressed the Catholic
doctrine (De Myst. Aiissae, III, 5;
P. L., 217, 844), and finally re-
ceived the sanction of the Council
of Trent." (S. J. Hunter, S. J.,
Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, Vol.
Ill, pp. 191 sq.)

27 Cfr. Scotus, Comment. in
Quatuor Libros Sent., IV, dist. i,
qu. 6, and Mastrius, De Sacra-
mentis, disp. i, qu. 2, art. 2.

2S Contra Lit. Pctil., II, 72:
" Certe antiquus populus Dei cir-
cumcisionem pro baptismo habuit."

PRE-CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS

quote Pope Innocent Ill's declaration that original sin
was remitted by the mystery of the circumcision.-^ But
the Scotist view is incompatible with St. Paul's repeated
assertion of the futility and inefficacy of all " works of
the law," ^° and moreover contradicts the positive teach-
ing of the Fathers that the Sacraments of the Ancient
Covenant had no power to forgive sins.^^

(2) Bellarmine, Vasquez, Tournely, and a few others
go to the opposite extreme, saying that circumcision was
merely an external sign of Israel's covenant with Jehovah
and a mark distinguishing the Chosen People from the
gentiles. We have already criticized this theory because
it suggests, — or at least does not absolutely exclude, — the
implication that the circumcised infants remained in the
state of mortal sin. This assumption is refuted by the
same arguments which speak in favor of a sacramentum
naturae for the pre-Mosaic period.^-

(3) A third group endeavors to reconcile the two ex-
tremes just mentioned by saying that the remission of
original sin depended somehow on the rite of circum-
cision, though that rite was by no means the cause but
merely an occasion or a conditio sine qua non of justifica-

20 Decret., L. Ill, tit. 42, c. 3,
" Maiores:" " Etsi originalis culpa
remittebatur per circumcisionis my-
sterium et damnationis periculum
vitabatur, non tamen perveniebatur
ad regnum coelorum, quod usque ad
mortem Christi fuit omnibus obsera-
tum."

30Cfr. Rom. Ill, 20; IV. 15;
VII, 6; Gal. Ill, ii sqq.; IV, 9;
V. 2; I Cor. VII, 19; 2 Cor. Ill,
7 sq.; Heb. VII, 18.

31 A number of Patristic texts
in proof of this assertion will be
fpund in Dc Augustinis, De Re

Sacrament., Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 57
sqq.

32 y. supra, pp. 20 sqq. Pope Inno-
cent III says in the above-quoted
Cap. " Maiores " (reproduced in Den-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 410): " Absit
enim, ut universi parviiU percant,
quorum quotidie tanta multitudo
moritur, quin et ipsis misericors
Deus, qui neminem vult perire, ali-
quod remedium procuraverit ad salu-
tem." For a detailed statement see
Suarcz, De Sacramentis, disp. s,
sect. I ; J. B. Sassc, De Sacramentis
Ecclesiae, Vol. I, pp. 85 sqq., Frei-
burg 1897.

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

tion. From this point of view it is clearly a sophism to
argue, as the Scotists do: "The remission of original
sin is effected either ex opere operato or e.v opere operan-
tis; it is not effected ex opere operantis because infants
are incapable of justifying faith; consequently, it must
be effected ex opere operato." For, unless we take the
phrase ex opere operato merely as the counterpart of opus
operans, as De Lugo does,^^ it is possible to insert between
the two a middle term, explaining the rite of circumcision
merely as a " sign of faith," to which regeneration is
outwardly attached but which lacks the intrinsic power
of effecting it. Or, to express the idea differently :
Circumcision did not, like Baptism, wipe out original sin
causally, as a signum demonstrativum, but merely inci-
dentally, as a signum prognosticum. This theory, which
is held by St. Thomas and the majority of Catholic
theologians, bears all the earmarks of truth. It takes
into account St. Paul's teaching of the inefficacy of all
the Old Testament ceremonies, and at the same time
agrees with the universal teaching of the Fathers and
the conciliary definitions of Florence and Trent.

3. The Sacraments of the Mosaic Law. —
The fact that circumcision was an essential con-

33 De Sacramcntis, disp. 5, sect.
4, n. 59. Billuart suggested the
term opus operatum passive for
opus operans {De Sacram,, diss. 3,
art. 6).

34 St. Thomas, Sumnia TheoL, 3a,
qu. yo, art. 4 : "In circumcisione
conferehatur gratia quantitm ad
omnes gratiae effectus, aliter ta-
men qiiani in baptismo. Nam in
baptismo confer tur gratia ex virtute
ipsius baptismi, quam habet inquan-
tum est instrument-urn passionis
Christi iam perfectae; in circum-

cisione autem conferehatur gratia
non ex virtute circumcisionis, sed
ex virtute fidei passionis Christi,
cuius signum erat circumcisio, ita
scil. quod homo, qui accipiebat cir-
cumcisioncm, profitebatur se sus-
cipere talent fidem vel adultus pro
se vel alius pro parvulis. Unde et
Apostolus dicit (Rom. IV, 11) quod
Abraham ' ace e pit signum circum-
cisionis signaculum iustitiae fidei,'
quia scil. iustitia erat ex fide signifi-
cata, non ex circumcisione signiii-
cante." For a fuller explanation of

PRE-CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS 27

stituent of the legislation given to the Israelites
on Mount Sinai shows that the Mosaic Law had
at least one Sacrament. The teaching of the
Fathers and councils permits us to infer that it
had more than one.

The existence of several Sacraments is quite in ac-
cordance with the spirit and character of the Mosaic
economy. Being a special covenant of Yahweh with His
Chosen People, and a type foreshadowing the "good
things to come," the Mosaic Law not only needed to be
more fully equipped with means of grace than the purely
natural law, but also required to foreshadow more clearly
the future Messianic dispensation. Its ceremonies and
precepts were calculated to keep awake the desire for the
promised " truth and reality " and to presage and prepare
the "liberty of the children of God."^^

But the Mosaic Sacraments were far inferior in char-
acter and efficacy to those of the Christian dispensa-
tion, of which they were merely an intimation and a
" shadow ; " ^^ and hence what we have said about circum-
cision ^^ applies to all the Sacraments of the Old Testa-
ment.

How many there were, it is impossible to ascertain.
St. Thomas, with special reference to their character as
types and patterns of the Sacraments of the New Testa-
ment, divides them into four categories: (a) Circum-
cision as the first and most necessary, and a pattern
of Baptism; (b) Sacraments designed for the pres-
ervation and perfection of righteousness and to serve

the theory discussed above see De 35 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,

Augustinis, Dc Re Sacrament., Vol. 3a, qu. 61, art. 3.

I, pp. SI sqq. 36 F. s^^pra, pp. 16 sq.

37 V. supra, No. 2, pp. 19 sqq.

28 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

as figures of the Holy Eucharist, e. g., the eating of the
Paschal lamb,^® the consumption of the loaves of propo-
sition,^^ and the so-called Eucharistic sacrifices, which
were at the same time types of the Mass ; (c) Sacraments
instituted for the expiation of sins and the cure of legal
uncleanness, such as the various purifications prescribed
for the laity, the washing of hands and feet imposed on
the Levites,*° etc. These were types of the Sacrament of
Penance, (d) A fourth and last group had for its ob-
ject the perpetuation of the Levitic priesthood and con-
sisted of certain consecratory rites *^ which typified the
Sacrament of Holy Orders.*^

The only Christian Sacraments which have no counter-
parts in the Mosaic Law are Confirmation, Extreme Unc-
tion, and Matrimony. The reason is explained by St.
Thomas as follows : " It is impossible that there should
have been in the Old Law a Sacrament corresponding
to Confirmation, which is the Sacrament of the fulness
of grace, because the time of that fulness had not yet ar-
rived, and the law had not brought anything to perfection
(Heb. VII, 19). The same must be said of the Sacra-
ment of Extreme Unction, which is a sort of immediate
preparation for man's entrance into the state of glory;
for this was not open in the Old Testament, as the
price had not yet been paid. Matrimony existed in the
Old Testament as a function of nature, but not as a
Sacrament of Christ's union with His Church, which at
that time had not yet been consummated. It was for
this reason, too, that a husband under the Old Law could

38 Ex. XII, 26. 42 On the controverted question

30 Lev. XXIV, 9. whether the rite of consecration was

40 Cfr. Lev. XII sqq. ; Numb. administered only to Aaron and
XIX sqq. the first generation of Jewish priests,

41 Cfr. Ex. XXIX; XXX, 30; Lev. or to all, see P. Scholz, Die hi.
VIII. AltertUmer des Volkes Israel, Vol.

THE SACRAMENTS OF THE N. T. 29

give his wife a bill of divorce, which is repugnant to the
nature of a Sacrament." *^

4. The Sacraments of the New Law. — The
sanctity demanded by the New Law requires more
perfect Sacraments than those available under
the Mosaic dispensation.

Christ, in whom godhead and manhood are so inti-
mately united, is as it were a living Sacrament — the
personal and visible embodiment of uncreated grace.
Similarly His Church, as the mystical image of the
Hypostatic Union, is the visible medium of supernatural
life, and therefore preeminently a sacramental institu-
tion.**

Another a priori argument for the existence of Sacra-
ments in the Christian economy is based on the nature of
man as a compound of spirit and body, needing sensible
signs for the communication of the higher spiritual life.
" The state of the New Law," says St. Thomas, " is
between the state of the Old Law, whose figures are
fulfilled in the New, and the state of glory, in which all
truth will be openly and perfectly revealed; wherefore

I, p. 52, Ratisbon 1868; P. Schegg, Vetera Lege, pretio nondum soluto.
Biblische Archdologie, p. 550, Frei- Matrimoniuni autem fuit quidem in
burg 1888. Vetere Lege, proict erat in officium
43 Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 102, naturae, non autem prout est sa-
art. 5, ad 3: "Sacramento con- cramcntum coniuuctionis Christi et
firmationis, quod est sacramentutn Ecclesiae, quae nondum erat facta;
plenitudinis gratiae, non potest re- undc et in Vetere Lege dabatur
spondere in Vetera Lege aliquod libellus repudii, quod est contra sa-
sacramentum, quia nondum advene- cramenti rationem." On the Sacra-
rat tempus plenitudinis, eo quod merits of the Mosaic Law the student
' neminem ad perfectum adduxit may profitably consult Schmalzl,
lex' (Heb. VII, 19). Similiter an- Die Sakramcnte des Alten Testa-
tern et sacramcnto extremae unc- vientes im allgemcinen nach der
tionis, quod est quaedam immediata Lehre dcs hi. Thomas, Eichstatt
praeparatio ad introitiim gloriae, 1883.
cuius aditus nondum patebat in *i On this point see Scheeben,

30 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

then there will be no Sacraments. But now, so long as
we know ' through a glass in a dark manner ' ( i Cor.
XIII, 12), we need sensible signs in order to reach spir-
itual things, and this is the province of the Sacra-
ments." *^

A third argument for the necessity of Sacraments in
the New Testament may be deduced from the circum-
stance that sin, through concupiscence, affects both soul
and body, and the remedy must consequently be ap-
plicable to both ; that is to say, it must be partly spiritual
and partly material.***

In asserting the existence of so-called parallels to the
Christian Sacraments in the ethnic religions of antiquity,
e. g. the cult of Mithras, the science of comparative
religion merely furnishes another proof that the use of
visible signs as pledges of invisible sancti^cation cor-
responds to a deep-rooted need of the human soul.

The Roman Catechism gives seven distinct reasons
for the fitness of Sacraments under the Christian dis-
pensation. They are: (i) the need of visible signs,
owing to the peculiar constitution of human nature, which
makes the spiritual soul dependent on the senses; (2) the
consoling assurance to be derived from the use of concrete
pledges guaranteeing Grod's fidelity to His promises; (3)
the need of healing medicines to recover or preserve the
health of the soul ; (4) the desire of belonging to a visible
society, knit, as it were, into one body by the bond of

Die Mysterien des Christentums, erunt sacramenta. Nunc auteni,

3rd ed., p. 536, Freiburg 1912. quamdiu per speculum et in aeni-

i5 Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 61, art. gmate cognoscimus (i Cor. XIII,

4, ad i: "Status Novae Legis me- 12), oportct nos per aliqua sensibilia

dius est inter statuni Veteris Legis, signa in spiritualia devenire, quod

cuius figurae implentur Nova Lege, pertinet ad rationem sacramen-

et inter statum gloriae, in qua torum."

omnis nude et perfecte manifestabi- 46 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Tlieo-

tur Veritas, et idea tunc nulla logica, 3a, qu. 61, art, i.

THE SACRAMENTS OF THE N. T. 31

visible signs; (5) the necessity of an external profession
of faith to distinguish Christians from infidels; (6) the
advantage of having sacred mysteries to excite and exer-
cise the faith; and (7) the repression of pride and the
exercise of humility involved in availing oneself of sensible
elements in obedience to God/''

While it is perfectly legitimate from these a
priori considerations to infer the fitness of Chris-
tian Sacraments, this fact does not dispense us
from proving their actual existence from Revela-
tion.

47 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. i, n. 9. dcr kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed.,
On the Sacraments of the New Law pp. 34 sqq., Freiburg 1902,
cfr. N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente

SECTION 3

THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

I. Heretical Errors vs. the Teaching of
THE Church. — After considerable wavering,
Protestants finally adopted two Sacraments and
two only, viz., Baptism and the Lord's Supper.
Against this heretical error the Tridentine Coun-
cil defined: "If anyone saith that the Sacra-
ments of the New Law . . . are more or less
than seven, to wit: Baptism, Confirmation, the
Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Order,
and Matrimony, or even that any one of these
seven is not truly and properly a Sacrament, let
him be anathema." ^ Hence it is an article of
faith that there are seven Sacraments.

Luther at first retained this dogma. But in 1520 he de-
clared that there are but three Sacraments, Baptism,
Penance, and the Eucharist ; ^ in 1523 he reduced the num-
ber to two, — Baptism and the Lord's Supper.

1 Sess. VII, can. i : " Si qttis cramentum, anathema sit." (Den-

dixerit, sacramenta novae legis esse zinger-Bannwart, n. 844).

plura vel pauciora guam septem, 2 De Captiv. Babyl. : " Principio

vid. baptismum, confirmationem, neganda mihi sunt septem sacra-

Ettcharistiam, poenitentiam, extre- menta et tantum tria pro tempore

mam unctionem, ordincm et matri- ponenda: baptismus, poenitentia, pa-

monium, aut ctiam aliquod horum nis."
septem non esse verc et proprie sa-

THE NUMBER SEVEN 33

Melanchthon was equally inconsistent. After assert-
ing in the first edition of his Loci Theologici (1522),
that there are two Sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's
Supper, he later, in his Apologia (A. D. 1530), added
''Absolution" and "Ordination."

Zwingli and Calvin invented the two-sacrament theory,
which has come to be generally accepted among modern
Protestants.^

That there are exactly seven Sacraments, neither more
nor less, can be demonstrated by a twofold method : first,
by going through the several rites which the Council
enumerates, proving that each of these answers the de-
scription of a Sacrament, and then showing that the same
cannot be said of any other ceremonies. Second, by posi-
tively demonstrating that the Church has always beheved
in just seven Sacraments, neither more nor less. For
pedagogical reasons we shall employ the latter method.

The belief of the Church may be demonstrated both
theologically and historically.

2. The Theological Argument. — For sev-
eral centuries before the Protestant Reformation,
the belief in seven Sacraments was universal
throughout the Church. Nov^, universal belief
in a doctrine of so great a theoretical and practi-
cal importance is certain proof of its Apostolic
origin. Consequently, the belief in seven Sacra-
ments is not a human invention but part and

3 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Sacram., II, seven Sacraments, though the

23; Winer-Ewald, Komparative Thirty-nine Articles teach only two

Darstellung des Lehrbcgriffes der — Ra()tism and tlie Eucharist. (Cfr.

verschiedenen cliristlichen Kirchcn- tlie New Schaff-Hcrzog Encyclope-

parieicn, 4th ed., pp. 171 sqq., Leip- dia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. X,

zig 1882. The Anglo-Catholic school p. 144).
in the Anglican Church believes in

34 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

parcel of the deposit of faith handed down by
the Apostles.

a) The minor premise of this syllogism is based on
the infallibility of the Church, which in turn is guaranteed
by the abiding presence of the Holy Ghost and our Sa-
viour's promise to remain with her unto the consumma-
tion of the world. Had the Catholic Church ever, even
for a moment, deviated from the truth, she would no
longer be the Church of Christ.

St. Augustine enunciates this truth in the following
words : " Whatever is held by the whole Church, and
was not introduced by any council, but has always been
maintained, is rightly held to rest on the authority of
the Apostles." *

b) The major premise asserts an historical
fact which is easily demonstrable from contem-
porary documents.

a) There is some doubt as to who first drew up our
present list of Sacraments. For a while this list was be-
lieved to be the work of Radulphus Ardens, who flourished
towards the end of the eleventh century, but this as-
sumption has been rendered improbable by the researches
of Grabmann.^ Most probably the first traces of " the
Tridentine Seven " will yet be discovered in the hitherto
inedited Libri Sententiarum of the schools of WilHam
of Champeaux (d. 1120) and Anselm of Laon (d. 11 18).
St. Otto, Bishop of Bamberg (ca. 1127), is reported by
his biographer Herbord (d. 11 68) to have left to his

4 St. Augustine, De Baptismo, IV, tate apostoUca traditum rectissime
24: " Quod universa tenet Eccle- creditur."

sia nee conciliis institutum, sed 5 Geschichte der scholastischen

semper retentum est, nonnisi auctori- Methode, Vol. I, p. 250, Freiburg

1909.

THE NUMBER SEVEN

faithful flock a set of catechetical instructions, in which
he speaks of " the seven Sacraments of the Church "
and enumerates them just as we have them to-day, though
in a somewhat different order." At about the same time
the learned Bishop Gregory of Bergamo (1133-1146),
in a treatise composed against Berengarius, gives the
number of Sacraments instituted by our Lord Jesus
Christ as seven/ About the year 1150, Master Roland,
later Pope Alexander III, enumerates seven Sacraments
in his Book of Sentences.® The same number occurs in
the statutes of Bishop Richard Poore, A. D. 1217, in the
Statuta Edita 1222 of Archbishop Stephen Langton of
Canterbury," and in the decrees of the provincial councils
of Oxford (1222), Clairvaux (1268), London (1272),
and Cologne (1280). The synodal constitutions of Odo
of Paris, A. D. 1197, give a detailed explanation of only
six Sacraments, but the existence of a seventh (Holy
Orders) is plainly demanded by the context.^" Of still
greater importance are the doctrinal decisions of various
popes and councils, such as the profession of faith pre-
scribed by Innocent HI for the Waldenses (A. D. 1210)."

6 Migne, P. L.. CLXXIII, 1358
sqq. : " Discessurus a vobis trado
vobis, quae tradita sunt nobis a
Domino, arrham fidei sanctae inter
vos et Deum, septem scil. sacramenta
Ecclesiae, quasi septem significativa
dona Spiritus Sancti. Ista igitur
septem sacramenta, quae iterum ve-
stri causa enumerare libet, i. e. bap-
tismum, cottfirmationem, infirmorum
unctionem, Eucharistiam, lapsorum
reconciliationem, coniugium ct ordi-
nes, per nos humiles suos paranym-
phos coelcstis Sponsus in arrham
vestrae ditectionis vobis Ecclesiae ac
sponsae suae transmittere dignatus
est." Cfr. Bolland., Acta Sanc-
torum, t. I, 2 lul., pp. 396 sqq.;

Pertz, Monum. Germ. Hist., Script.,
XX, 732.

7 " Scire debemus, ea solum esse
Ecclesiae sacramenta a Servatore
nostra lesu instituta, quae in medi-
cinam nobis tributa fuere, et haec
numero adimplentur septenario."
(Cfr. the Innsbruck Zeitschrift fiir
kath. Theologie, 1878, p. 800).

8 Cfr. Gietl, Die Sentenzen Ro-
lands, nachmals Papsles Alexander
III., sum erstenmal herausgegeben,
pp. 154 sqq., Freiburg 1891.

0 Cfr. Mansi, Concil., XXII, 11 73.

10 Cfr. the Maycnce Katholik,
1910, IT, pp. 481 sq.

11 Quoted in Denzinger-Bann-
wart's Enchiridion, n. 424: " Ap-

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

At the Council of Lyons, A. D. 1274, the Greek Em-
peror Michael Palseologus submitted to Pope Gregory
X a profession of faith, in which he acknowledged that
" the Holy Roman Church holds and teaches that there
are seven Sacraments, namely Baptism, etc." ^- The
Council of Constance (1418), by order of Martin V,^^
drew up a list of questions to be addressed to the followers
of Wiclif and Hus, of which numbers 15 to 22 refer to the
seven Sacraments as we have them.^* The Council of
Florence (A. D. 1439), in its Decretum pro Armenis,
declares that " there are seven Sacraments of the New
Law, vis.: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Pen-
ance, Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, and Matrimony." ^^
/?) The offi-cial teaching of the Church was explained
and scientifically defended by the Scholastic theologians
of the twelfth century, not merely as a theoretical opin-
ion, but as a dogma of the faith practically applied in
every-day life. Hugh of St. Victor (1097-1141), in his
treatise De Caerimoniis, Sacramentis, Offlciis et Obser-
vationibus Ecclesiasticis,^^ enumerates the seven Sacra-
ments and describes them one by one. Peter Lombard,
who flourished at about the same time,^'^ begins his treatise
on the subject with these words: "Now let us enter
upon the Sacraments of the New Law, which are : Bap-
tism, Confirmation, the Blessing of Bread or Eucharist,

probamus ergo baptismum infantium,
. . . confirmationem ab episcopo fac-
tarn, etc."

12 Ibid., n. 46s : " Tenet etiam
et docet Sancta Romana Ecclesia,
septem esse ecclesiastica sacramenta,
unum scil. baptisma, etc."

13 See the Bull " Inter Cunctas."

14 Cfr. Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
665 sqq.

15 " Novae legis scptcni sunt sa-
cramenta, vid. baptismus, confirma-

tio, Eiicharistia, poenitentia, ex-
trema unctio, ordo et matrimonium."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 69s). On
the enumeration and proper se-
quence of the Sacraments see
Krawutzky, Zdlilung und Ordnung
der Sakramente, Breslau 1865.

16 The authorship of this treatise,
however, is not quite certain; some
ascribe it to Robert Pulleyn.

17 Died A. D. 1 1 64.

THE NUMBER SEVEN 37

Penance, Extreme Unction, Order, and Matrimony." ^*
The fact that up to the middle of the thirteenth century-
various writers, mostly commentators on the Canon Law
of the Church, differed in giving the number of the Sacra-
ments, was due partly to the prevailing vagueness in the
use of the term " Sacrament," and partly to the compila-
tory character of their writings.^^ The great Scholas-
tics, headed by St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas of
Aquin, unhesitatingly accepted the teaching of Peter
Lombard and were at pains to show the congruity of
the septenary number as afterwards defined by the Coun-
cil of Trent. Thus Dominicus Soto writes : " There is
no question as to the certainty of the number [seven],
since that is settled by ecclesiastical tradition and usage ;
but we shall inquire into its congruity." -°

This brief survey shows that the Tridentine
definition was simply the solemn confirmation of
a doctrine which had been in undisputed posses-
sion for at least four centuries before the Protes-
tant Reformation.

3. The Historical Argument. — Any dog-
matic truth that has been constantly held by the
universal Church, rests on the authority of the
Apostles, and consequently, of Christ.^^ Now, it

IS Sent., IV, dist. 2, n. 2: "lam numeri certiiudine; ilia siquidem

ad sacramenta novae legis accede- Ecclesiae traditione et usu citra dis-

mus, quae sunt: baptismus, con- putationem cotistantissima est; sed

firmatio, pants benedictio, i. e. Eu- de eius convenicntia."

charistia, poenitcntia, unctio ex- 21 Cfr. TertuUian, Dc Pracscr., c.

trema, ordo, coniugiitm." 28: " Cetentm quod apud mtittos

19 Cfr. the Katholik, 1909, II, pp. ■unum invenitur, non est erratum,
182 sqq. sed traditum." V. St. Augustine,

20 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 1, supra, p. 34, note 4.
qu. 6, art. i : " Non quaerittir dc

38 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

can be shown that the Church has at all times be-
lieved in and administered the seven Sacraments
as we have them to-day, and that even the hereti-
cal sects which broke loose from Catholic unity
in the early centuries, held the same doctrine re-
garding the number of the Sacraments as that
later defined by the Council of Trent.

a) It is an historical fact that ''the Tridentine
Seven" was in undisputed possession at the time
of St. Otto of Bamberg, A. D. 1127.^^

While the followers of Wiclif and Hus attacked the
Catholic teaching with regard to the requisites of valid-
ity, claiming that a Sacrament cannot be validly ad-
ministered by one who is in the state of mortal sin, they
never denied that there are seven Sacraments, neither
more nor less.

b) Going three centuries further back we
come to the Greek schism of Photius, A. D. 869.

Though this learned heretic was constantly seeking
for pretexts to justify the secession of the Greek Church
from Rome, he never once accused the Latins of having
abolished any of the traditional Sacraments or introduced
new ones. Both Churches were so perfectly at one in
their belief on this point, even after the schism, that
no essential difference of opinion came to light in the
repeated efforts for reunion made at Lyons (A. D. 1274)
and Florence (A. D. 1439). Though the reunion
patched up at Florence came to a bad end, the schismatic
Greeks continued to believe in seven Sacraments, as the

22 V. supra, No. i, pp. 32 sq.

THE NUMBER SEVEN

Lutherans found to their sorrow when they tried to
" convert " them. Jeremias, Patriarch of Constantinople,
in 1573, poHtely but firmly rejected the overtures of
Martin Crusius and Jacob Andrea, of the theological
faculty of Tubingen, and in a long letter refuted the
Lutheran innovations point for point. He said inter alia:
" We solemnly affirm that the holy Fathers have handed
down to us . . . seven divine Sacraments, w^.; Baptism,
Anointment with Sacred Chrism, Holy Communion,
Order, Matrimony, Penance, and the Oil of the last
Unction, . . . neither more nor less. . . . And all these
means of our salvation have been handed down to us
by Christ Himself, our Lord God, and His Apostles." ^^
When, in 1581, the Tiibingen divines again appealed to
Jeremias, he bluntly told them to cease their fruitless
efforts.-* Half a century later an attempt was made
by a traitor to force the Protestant heresy on the Greek
Church. Cyrillus Lucaris, a Greek priest, who had es-
poused Calvinism and somehow managed to intrigue
his way into the patriarchal see of Constantinople, in
a Calvinistic confession of faith which he drew up in
Latin, in 1629, and subsequently translated into Greek,
asserted that there are but two Sacraments. The Greek
Church at once took alarm, and Cyril was sent into
exile (1634). In 1637 he purchased his return by bribery

23 V. Arnaud, Perpetuite de la
Foi, t. V, 1. 1, c. 3: " Dicimus
praeclare nobis sanctos tradidisse
Patres, . , . septem divina sacra-
mcnta esse, baptismum scil., sacri
chrisinatis unctioncm, sacram com-
mnnioncm, ordincm, matrimonittm,
pocnitcittiam ct extremae unctionis
oleum, , . . non plura nee pauciora
esse. . . . Et haec quidem omnia
salutis nostrae remedia ipse Icsiis
Christus Deits et Dominus noster

tradidit ct sancti cius Apostoli."
24 " Rogamus itaque vos, iic
posthac labores nobis exhibeatis
neque de iisdem scribatis et scripta
mittatis." For further particulars
concerning this remarkable corres-
pondence between the Lutheran di-
vines of Tubingen and the Patriarch
of Constantinople, see Schelstrate,
Acta Orient. Ecclesiae contra Lu-
thcri Hacresim, I, 151 sqq., 202 sqq.,
246 sqq., Rome 1739.

40 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

and succeeded in having himself reinstated. Thereupon
the indignation of both clergy and people against the man
who dared to set his private opinion above the com-
mon belief of the faithful could no longer be restrained.
The unw^orthy Patriarch was condemned by a council
held at Constantinople (A. D. 1638), and, being moreover
suspected of favoring an invasion of the Turkish Em-
pire by the Cossacks, was strangled by order of the Sultan
and his body cast into the sea. His " Confession of
Faith " was condemned and anathema passed upon him by
a synod held at Constantinople in September, 1638.^^

Four years later, at a council held under the presidency
of Parthenius, who was a cordial hater of Rome, there
was adopted a Confessio Fidei Orthodoxae drawn up by
Peter Mogilas, metropolitan of Kieff, in which the Latin
doctrine as to the number of Sacraments held a prominent
place. This important symbol in the following year re-
ceived the official signatures of all four Oriental patri-
archs and of numerous bishops, and was solemnly ap-
proved by a council held at Jerusalem in 1672.

These official declarations find their practical confirma-
tion in the liturgical books of the Orthodox Church,
both ancient and modern,"" and are not denied even by
such radical schismatic theologians as Simon of Thessa-
lonica (d. 1429), Gabriel of Philadelphia, Meletius Syri-
gus, Coresius, and his pupil Georgios Protosynkellos.
Only a few years ago the Orthodox Provost Maltzew, of
the Russian embassy in Berlin, wrote : " While the
Roman Church and all the heterodox Oriental churches
are in perfect agreement with the Orthodox Catholic

25 Cfr. Alzog-Pabisch-Byrne, Man- 26 Cfr. Goar, Euchologium sive

ual of Universal Church History, Rituale Graecorum, Paris 1647.
Vol. Ill, 5th ed., pp. 46s sqq.,
Cincinnati 1899,

THE NUMBER SEVEN 41

Church of the East in regard to the doctrine that there
are seven Sacraments, the sects based on the Protestant
Reformation admit but two, and interpret even these in
a different sense from the Orthodox Church." ^^

In view of the origin of the Greek schism and the great
animosity existing between the two churches, it is impos-
sible to assume that the doctrine of the seven Sacraments
was borrowed by the West from the East, or mce versa;
both churches must have derived it from a common
source before the Orient severed its connection with the
Latin Church. In other words, the Church of Christ
had her seven Sacraments long before tlie time of Pho-
tius.^^

c) Another step takes us back to that agitated
period when the Nestorians and the Monophysites
broke away from Cathohc unity.

a) Did these ancient heretics hold any other doctrine
as to the number of Sacraments than that defined at
Trent ? No. Their liturgical books contain the Catholic
dogma in all its purity, and thus furnish clear and in-
disputable evidence that it antedates the fifth century, when
these sects separated from the Church.

(3) This argument loses nothing of its force by the
curious circumstance that, in the course of ecclesiastical
history, a few individual writers belonging to these sects
have rejected one or the other Sacrament and substi-

27 Maltzew, Die Sakramcntc dcr Sacraments among the Nestorians
orthodox-katholischen Kirche des and Monophysites may be studied in
Morgenlandes, p. C, Berlin 1898. Asseniani's Bibliotheca Orient., vols.

28 The rites of the Copts, Syrians, II and III. Much valuable material
and Armenians have been collected is also furnished by Arnaud in his
and published by Denzinger, Ritus great work Perpetuitc de la Foi, vol.
Orientalium, 2 vols., Wiirzburg III, 1. 8, c. 18 sqq.

1863 sqq. The administration of the

42 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

tuted in its place some ceremony or rite which the Church
has never acknowledged as sacramentary. The very fact
that these innovators never deviated from the number
seven, proves that there were seven Sacraments, neither
more nor less, from the beginning. The Greek monks
Job and Damascene of Thessalonica, e. g., after arbitrarily
adding the monastic habit ^^ to the list of Sacraments, re-
stored the traditional number seven by contracting Pen-
ance and Extreme Unction into one (Job) or striking
Penance entirely from the list (Damascene). Equally
characteristic is the procedure of Vartanus, a thirteenth-
century Armenian of Monophysitic proclivities, who sub-
stituted the " burial service " ^° to fill the vacancy he
had created in the roster of Sacraments by fusing Penance
with Extreme Unction. These authors got their new
" Sacraments " from a misunderstood passage in the writ-
ings of Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite, where the four
" consecratory " Sacraments — Baptism, Confirmation, the
Eucharist, and Holy Orders — are immediately followed
by the rite for the blessing of altars, the monastic habit,
benediction, and the funeral service.

It is not so easy to explain how the Nestorian Ebed
Jesu (d. 13 18) came to deny the Sacraments of Matri-
mony and Extreme Unction and to replace them by the
Sign of the Cross ^^ and the " Holy Ferment," whatever
that may have meant.^- Perhaps these and similar
vagaries owed their origin to the ignorance of hermits who
were far removed from the centres of ecclesiastical learn-
ing and deprived of even ordinary means of instruction.^^
The genuine doctrine of these sects and their authentic
practice must be studied in the liturgical books which

29 Habitus saccr s. monasticus, 32 Sacrum fermentum,
KaXoyopLKT] 7) TO fieya CXVI^^- ^^ '-'" ^^^ ignorance of the Copts

30 Funus super defunctos. cfr. the Bollandist P. Sollerius, S.

31 Signum vivificae cruets. j., Ada Sanctor,, t. V, pp. 140 sqq.

THE NUMBER SEVEN 43

contain the primitive rites of the Sacraments, as stated
under a).^*

d) If the belief of the Church in regard to such
an important dogma as the number of the Sac-
raments instituted by Christ, had undergone
any essential change between the Apostolic age
and the time of Nestorius, this change, whether
slow or sudden, would necessarily have left its
traces in history.

The bishops and the faithful of the first four cen-
turies jealously guarded the purity of the Apostolic de-
posit, especially in those matters which involved daily
practice. The learned and zealous Fathers who did not
hesitate to shed their blood in defense of the orthodox
faith against the anti-Trinitarian and Christological here-
sies, would surely have sounded the alarm had anyone
tried to tamper with the doctrine of the Sacraments.
Even if, for argument's sake, we were to grant that the
primitive Church knew but two or three Sacraments, it
would have been impossible, aside from her infallibility
and indefectibility, for any innovator to introduce a com-
plete set of new sacramental rites without incurring the
determined opposition of bishops, priests, and people.
Hence we may safely conclude with Father Hunter that
" the doctrine now held by all who reject the authority
of the Tridentine Council, is certainly not Apostolic nor
traditional ; it is a novelty no older than the sixteenth
century ; it is therefore a freshly introduced doctrine,
resting on the authority of Luther or some of his con-

84 Page 41, supra. For further information on this topic see Franze-
lin, De Sacram. in Cenere, thes. 20.

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

temporaries : it is therefore not to be received, unless the
teacher produce his credentials as a divine messenger,
and this he is unable to do." ^^ The Catholic doctrine of
seven Sacraments is Apostolic in its origin, and hence de-
rived from our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.^®

4. Why There are Just Seven Sacraments.
— As there are reasons of congruity for the ex-
istence of Sacraments under the Christian dis-
pensation,^^ so there are reasons why there should
be precisely seven, neither more nor less.

a) The human intellect is not, of course, able to es-
tablish this number with mathematical certainty on a
priori grounds. Absolutely speaking, God had it in
His power to institute as many Sacraments as He pleased.
But it is easy to see, a posteriori, that the septenary ad-
mirably corresponds to the practical needs of man's com-
posite nature. This was admitted even by Goethe, modern
pagan though he was.^^ We will not enter into useless

35 S. J. Hunter, S. J., Outlines
of Dogmatic Theology, Vol. Ill, p.
178.

36 The argument from prescription
for the septenary number of the
Sacraments is very a.bly set forth
by Card. Bellarmine, De Sacrain.,
II, 23 sqq. The student will also
profit by consulting Heinrich-Gutber-
let, Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IX,
S 500.

37 V. supra, pp. 30 sq.

38 See the famous passage in his
Autobiography, tr. by J. Oxenford,
Vol. I, pp. 239 sqq., Philadelphia,
1882: "In moral and religious, as
well as in physical and civil matters,
man does not like to do anything

on the spur of the moment; he
needs a sequence from which results
habit; what he is to love and to
perform, he cannot represent to
himself as single or isolated; and,
if he is to repeat anything will-
ingly, it must not have become
strange to him. If the Protestant
worship lacks fulness in general, so
let it be investigated in detail, and
it will be found that the Protestant
has too few sacraments, — nay, in-
deed, he has only one in which he
is himself an actor, — ■ the Lord's Sup-
per; for baptism he sees only when
it is performed on others, and is
not greatly edified by it. The sac-
raments are the highest part of

THE NUMBER SEVEN

speculations about the " mystic number seven," but merely
note that there is a remarkable analogy between the nat-
ural life of the body and the supernatural life of the soul,
to both of which the Sacraments so wonderfully minister.

religion, the symbols to our senses
of an extraordinary divine favor
and grace. In the Lord's Supper
earthly lips are to receive a divine
Being embodied, and partake of a
heavenly, under the form of an
earthly nourishment. This import
is the same in all kinds of Chris-
tian churches: whether the sacra-
ment is taken with more or less
submission to the mystery, with
more or less accommodation as to
that which is intelligible, it re-
mains a great, holy thing, which
in reality takes the place of the
possible or the impossible, the place
of that which man can neither at-
tain nor do without. But such a
sacrament should not stand alone:
no Christian can partake of it with
the true joy for which it is given,
if the symbolical or sacramental
sense is not fostered within him.
He must be accustomed to regard
the inner religion of the heart and
that of the external church as per-
fectly one, as the great universal
sacrament, which again divides it-
self into so many others, and com-
municates to these parts its holiness,
indestructibility, and eternity.

" Here a youthful pair join
hands, not for a passing saluta-
tion or for the dance: the priest
pronounces his blessing upon them,
and the bond is indissoluble. It
is not long before this wedded pair
bring a likeness to the threshold
of the altar: it is purified with
linly water, and so incorporated into
tlie church, that it cannot forfeit
this benefit but through the most
monstrous apostasy. The child in
the course of life goes on progress-

ing in earthly things of his own
accord, in heavenly things he must
be instructed. Does it prove on ex-
amination that this has been fully
done, he is now received into the
bosom of the church as an actual
citizen, as a true and voluntary
professor, not without outward tok-
ens of the weightiness of this act.
Now, only, he is decidedly a Chris-
tian, now for the first time he
knows his advantages and also his
duties. But, in the mean time, a
great deal that is strange has hap-
pened to him as a man: through
instruction and affliction he has come
to know how critical appears the
state of his inner self, and there
will constantly be a question of
doctrines and of transgressions; but
punishment shall no longer take
place. For here, in the infinite con-
fusion in which he must entangle
himself, amid the conflict of nat-
ural and religious claims, an ad-
mirable expedient is given him, in
confiding his deeds and misdeeds,
his infirmities and doubts, to a
worthy man, appointed expressly for
that purpose, who knows how to
calm, to warn, to strengthen him,
to chasten him likewise by sym-
bolical punishments, and at last, by
a complete washing away of his
guilt, to render him happy, and
to give him back, pure and
cleansed, the tablet of his man-
hood. Thus prepared, and purely
set at rest by several sacramental
acts, which on closer examination
branch forth again into minuter
sacramental traits, he kneels down
to receive the host; and, that the
mystery of this high act may be

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

St. Thomas develops this thought in the third part of the
Summa:

" The Sacraments of the Church were instituted for
a twofold purpose : namely, in order to perfect man in

still enhanced, he sees the chalice
only in the distance: it is no com-
mon eating and drinking that satis-
fies, it is a heavenly feast, which
makes him thirst after heavenly
drink.

" Yet let not the youth believe
that this is all he has to do: let
not even the man believe it. In
earthly relations we are at last ac-
customed to depend on ourselves;
and, even there, knowledge, under-
standing, and character will not al-
ways suffice: in heavenly things, on
the contrary, we have never fin-
ished learning. The higher feeling
within us, which often finds itself
not even truly at home, is, besides,
oppressed by so much from with-
out, that our own power hardly
administers all that is necessary
for counsel, consolation, and help.
But, to this end, that remedy is
instituted for our whole life; and
an intelligent, pious man is con-
tinually waiting to show the right
way to the wanderers, and to re-
lieve the distressed.

" And what has been so well tried
through the whole life, is now to
show forth all its healing power
with tenfold activity at the gate
of death. According to a trustful
custom, inculcated from youth up-
wards, the dying man receives with
fervor those symbolical, significant
assurances; and there, where every
earthly warranty fails, he is as-
sured, by a heavenly one, of a
blessed existence for all eternity.
He feels perfectly convinced that
neither a hostile element nor a
malignant spirit can hinder him from
clothing himself with a glorified

body, so that, in immediate rela-
tion with the Godhead, he may
partake of the boundless happiness
which flows forth from Him.

" Then, in conclusion, that the
whole man may be made holy, the
feet also are anointed and blessed.
They are to feel, even in the event
of possible recovery, a repugnance
to touching this earthly, hard, im-
penetrable soil. A wonderful elas-
ticity is to be imparted to them,
by which they spurn from under
them the clod of earth which
hitherto attracted them. And so,
through a brilliant cycle of equally
holy acts, the beauty of which we
have only briefly hinted at, the
cradle and the grave, however far
asunder they may chance to be, are
joined in one continuous circle.

" But all these spiritual wonders
spring not, like other fruits, from
the natural soil, where they can
neither be sown nor planted nor
cherished. We must supplicate for
them from another region, — a thing
which cannot be done by all per-
sons nor at all times. Here we
meet the highest of these symbols,
derived from pious tradition. We
are told that one man may be
more favored, blessed, and sanctified
from above than another. But, that
this may not appear as a natural
gift, this great boon, bound up
with a heavy duty, must be com-
municated to others by one author-
ized person to another; and the
greatest good that a man can at-
tain, without his having to ob-
tain it by his own wrestling and
grasping, must be preserved and
perpetuated on earth by spiritual

THE NUMBER SEVEN 47

things pertaining to the worship of God according to the
Christian life, and to be a remedy against the defects
caused by sin. And in either way it is becoming that
there should be seven Sacraments. For spiritual life
has a certain conformity with the life of the body: just
as other corporeal things have a certain likeness to things
spiritual. Now man attains perfection in the corporeal
life in two ways : first, in regard to his own person ; sec-
ondly, in regard to the whole community of the society in
which he lives, for man is by nature a social animal.
With regard to himself man is perfected in the life of
the body in two ways: first, directly {per se), i. e. by
acquiring some vital perfection ; secondly, indirectly {per
accidens), i. e. by the removal of hindrances to life, such
as ailments or the like. Now the life of the body is per-
fected directly, in three ways. First, by generation,
whereby a man begins to be and to live : and correspond-
ing to this in the spiritual life there is Baptism, which is
a spiritual regeneration. . . . Secondly, by growth,
whereby a man is brought to perfect size and strength :
and corresponding to this in the spiritual life there is
Confirmation, in which the Holy Ghost is given to

inheritance. In the very ordina- the knee, but the blessing which
tion of the priest is comprehended he imparts, and which seems the
all that is necessary for the effec- more holy, and to come the more
tual solemnizing of those holy acts immediately from heaven, becauisC
by which the multitude receive grace, the earthly instrument cannot at all
without any other activity being weaken or invalidate it by its own
needful on their part than that of sinful, nay, wicked nature,
faith and implicit confidence. And " How is this truly spiritual con-
thus the priest joins the line of ception shattered to pieces in Protes-
his predecessors and successors, in tantism, by part of the above-men-
the circle of those anointed with tioned symbols being declared
liim, representing the highest source apocryphal, and only a few canoni-
of blessings, so much the more glo- cal! — and how, by their indifference
riously, as it is not he, the priest, to one of these, will they prepare
whom we reverence, but his office; us for the high dignity of the
it is not his nod to which we bow others. "

48 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

strengthen us. . . . Thirdly, by nourishment, whereby life
and strength are preserved to man : and corresponding to
this in the spiritual life there is the Eucharist. . . .
This would be enough for man if he had an impassible
life, both corporally and spiritually ; but since man is lia-
ble at times to both corporal and spiritual infirmity, i. e.
sin, he needs a cure for his infirmity. This [cure is
twofold. One is the healing that restores health: and
corresponding to this in the spiritual life there is Pen-
ance. . . . The other is the restoration of former vigor
by means of suitable diet and exercise: and correspond-
ing to this in the spiritual life there is Extreme Unction,
which removes the remainders of sin and prepares man
for final glory. ... In regard to the whole community,
man is perfected in two ways. First, by receiving power
to rule the community and to exercise public acts : and cor-
responding to this in the spiritual life there is the Sacra-
ment of Order. . . . Secondly, in regard to natural propa-
gation. This is accomplished by Matrimony both in the
corporal and in the spiritual life: since it is not only a
Sacrament but also a function of nature.

" We may likewise gather the number of the Sacra-
ments from their being instituted as a remedy against
the defect caused by sin. For Baptism is intended as a
remedy against the absence of spiritual life ; Confirmation,
against the infirmity of soul found in those of recent birth ;
the Eucharist, against the soul's proneness to sin; Pen-
ance, against actual sin committed after Baptism ; Ex-
treme Unction, against the remainders of sins, — of those
sins, namely, which are not sufficiently removed by
Penance, whether through negligence or through ignor-
ance ; Order, against divisions in the community ; Matri-
mony, as a remedy against concupiscence in the individ-

THE NUMBER SEVEN 49

ual, and against the decrease in numbers that results from
death." '^

This beautiful argument has been as it were officially
approved and consecrated by the Church through its em-
bodiment in the Decretum pro Armenis (1439) ^"^ ^^^ the
Roman Catechism.*^

b) The Scholastics, from Peter Lombard to Suarez,
devoted much ingenuity to demonstrating the intrinsic
fitness of the septenary number of the Sacraments. Per-
haps the most original conception is that of St. Bonaven-
ture, who argues from the vicissitudes to which every
Christian is subject in his capacity as a soldier of Christ.
" Baptism," he says, " is [the Sacrament] of those that
enter the army ; Confirmation, that of the combatants en-
gaged in actual battle ; the Eucharist, that of the soldiers
regaining strength ; Penance, that of the fighters arising
from defeat ; Extreme Unction, that of the departing ; Or-
der, that of the officers charged with training new soldiers ;
Matrimony, that of the men whose business it is to fur-
nish recruits." *" He proves the same thesis from the
functions of the different Sacraments as remedies for vari-
ous diseases of the soul : " There are seven different

39 Sttrnma Thcol., 3a, qu. 65, art. sanamur ; spiritualiter etiam et cor-
I. poraliter, prout animae e.rpedit, per

40 Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 695: extremam unctionem. Per ordinem
" Novae legis septem sunt sacra- vera Ecclesia gubernatur et multi-
menia. . . . Horicm quinque prima plicatur spiritualiter; per matrimo-
ad spiritualem uniuscuinsque hominis nium corporaliter augctur."

in seipso perfectionem, duo ultima 4i P. II, c. i, n. 18.
ad totius Ecclesiae regimen multi- 42 Breviloquium, P. VI, cap. 3:
plicationemque ordinata sunt. Per " Baptismus est ingredientium, con-
baptismum enim spiritualiter rena- firmatio pugnantiiim, Eucharistia
scimur ; per confirmationetn augemur vires resumentium, poenitentia re-
in gratia et roboramur in fide; renati surgentium, extrema unctio excun-
autem et roborati nutrimur divinae tium, ordo novos milites introducen-
Eucharistiae alimonict; quodsi per tium, matrimonium novos milites
peccatum aegritudiiiem incurrimus praeparantium,"
animae, per poenitentiam spiritualiter

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

kinds of diseases, three of guilt, vi::;.: original sin, mortal
sin, and venial sin; and four of punishment, vis.: igno-
rance, malice, infirmity, and concupiscence. . . . Against
each of these special remedies must be applied. . . . Bap-
tism, against original sin ; Penance, against mortal sin ; Ex-
treme Unction, against venial sin; Order, against igno-
rance ; the Eucharist, against malice ; Confirmation, against
infirmity ; and Matrimony, against concupiscence." *^
Combining the three theological with the four cardinal vir-
tues into a series of seven, the Saint drav^s a parallel be-
tween them and the Sacraments, as follows : " Bap-
tism disposes for faith. Confirmation for hope, the Eu-
charist for charity. Penance for justice, Extreme Unction
for perseverance, which is the complement and sum of
fortitude. Holy Orders for prudence, and Matrimony for
temperance." ^*

c) To compare the seven Sacraments with the seven
capital sins *^ or with the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost,
is rather far-fetched. The mythological interpretation
of the number seven as the outward embodiment of the
" seven eyes of God," i. e. the planets, may be explained
by the fact that the coryphaei of Scholasticism were
ignorant of the apocalyptic and cabalistic juggling at-

43 Ihid. : " Morbus est septi-
formis: triplex culpabilis, scil. culpa
originalis, mortalis et venialis, et
quadruplex poenalis: scil. ignorantia,
malitia, infirmitas et concupiscentia,
. . . Hinc est quod oportuit adhiberi
. . . contra originalem baptisniuin
contra mortalem poenitentiam
contra venialem unctionem extre-
mam; contra ignorantiam ordinetn.
contra malitiam Eucharistiam
contra infirmitatem confirmationetn
et contra concupiscentiam matri-
monium."

44 Ibid. : " Baptismiis disponit ad
fidem, confirmatio ad spent, Eu-
charistia ad caritatem; poenitentia
ad iustitiam, unctio extrema ad
per sever antiam, quae est fortitudinis
complementuni et sumnia, ordo ad
prtidentiam, matrimoniutn ad tem-
perantiam conservandam." Cfr. P.
Minges, O.F.M., Compendium Theol,
Dogmat. Specialis, Vol. II, p. 12,
Munich 1901.

45 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa
Theol., 3a. qu. 65, art. 5.

THE NUMBER SEVEN 51

tributed to them by modern writers on the history of
comparative religion/*^

5. Certain Patristic Difficulties Solved.
— Though the Sacraments were in use from the
beginning, and references to all of them occur in
the writings of the Fathers, there is nowhere to
be found in Patristic literature an express state-
ment that there are exactly seven, neither more
nor less. It may be asked : Why was the work
of synthesis left to the Scholastics of the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries? Several reasons ac-
count for the silence of the Fathers on this
head: (i) the conditions of the time, (2) the
discipline of the secret, and (3) the fact that sac-
ramental theology developed rather slowly.

a) The silence of the Fathers with regard to the num-
ber of the Sacraments proves nothing against the " Tri-
dentine Seven." One may own a lot of precious gems
without making an inventory of them. We shall briefly
explain the reasons why it never occurred to the writers of
the Patristic period to draw up a formal list of the Sac-
raments.

a) The circumstances of the time were not favorable
to the double task of working out a scientific definition
and applying it to the various rites in use. " From the

46 The analogy between the seven den Sakramenten, Vol. I, 5th ed.,

Sacraments and the seven capital § 12, Miinster 1884; N. Gihr, Die

sins is very popular among the Sakramente der kath. Kirche, Vol.

schismatic Greeks. On the whole I, 2nd ed., pp. 173 sqq., Freiburg

subject of this subdivision cfr. Os- 1902.
wald, Die dogmatische Lehre von

52 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

beginning the Church has always lived by her Sacraments
and has always had faith in their marvelous efficacy, . . .
but she did not from the beginning consider them system-
atically, ranging them under the concept of efficacious
symbols of grace. This was a work of synthesis ac-
complished only later by theological speculation." ^"^
Hence we need not wonder that Tertullian mentions one
class of Sacraments and passes over the others in si-
lence,*^ or that St. Cyril of Jerusalem treats of three or
four without adverting to the existence of the rest.*^ The
Fathers in each case wrote from a strictly practical point
of view, with the intention of satisfying actual needs, such
as the instruction of the faithful or catechumens and the
refutation of heretics. ^° Usually it is the teaching of
the Church on Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist
that is briefly summarized for the benefit of neophytes.^^
The general division that naturally suggested itself to the
minds of those early writers was that into sacramenta
consecratoria and sacramenta medicinalia. The sacra-
menta consecratoria (Baptism, Confirmation, the Euchar-
ist, and Holy Orders) ^- claimed their main interest. In
limiting their attention to this group, the Fathers by no
means wished to deny the existence of the sacramenta
medicinalia (Penance, Extreme Unction, and Matri-
mony).^^

^) Another reason why no effort was made in the early
days to determine the exact number of the Sacraments,

47 P. Pourrat, Theology of the 53 For a more detailed treatment
Sacraments, p. 257, St. Louis 1914. see Pourrat, La Theologie Sacra-

48 De Resurrect. Carnis, c. 8. tnentaire, pp. 232 sqq., 4th ed.,

49 Catech. Mystag. Paris 1910 (English translation, pp.

50 Cfr. Pourrat, op. cit., p. 260. 259 sqq.) ; cfr. also J. Scheeben,
Bi St. Ambrose, De Myst. and De Die Mysterien des Christ entums,

Sacram. 3rd ed., pp. 507 sqq., Freiburg

52 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa 1912.
TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 6.

THE NUMBER SEVEN 53

was the disciplina arcani, which enjoined secrecy with
regard to sacramental rites. The sacred mysteries shrank
from the broad dayhght which at a later age enabled the
Scholastics to analyze them minutely in public. The
" discipline of the secret " was strictly enforced through-
out the Patristic period. Every copy of St. Cyril's Ca-
techeses ^* bore a notice requesting the owner not to show
it to catechumens and non-Christians generally, nor to al-
low copies to be made without prefixing a similar warn-
ing.^^ In St. Cyril's day the faithful were instructed
never to speak of the mysteries of their religion in the
presence of outsiders.^*^ The phrase " norunt initiati "
occurs at least fifty times in the writings of St. Chrysos-
tom. Where he speaks of Baptism he remarks : " I
should like to express myself freely on this subject, but
cannot do so on account of the presence of some who are
not initiated." ^^ In the West the disciplina arcani sur-
vived far into the fifth century. St. Augustine says : " Let
not the sacraments of the faithful be revealed to the
catechumens." °^ Pope Innocent the First refused to di-
vulge the formula of Confimiation.'^^

54 See apud Migne, P. G., (Migne, P. G., LXI, 348). The
XXXIII. relevant texts collated by Val.

55 " Catecheses istas illuminatorum Schmitt, Die Verheissung der Eu-
Us quidem, qui ad baptisinum acce- charistie iJoh. Kap. 6) bei den
dunt et fidelibtts qui lavacruni iam Antiochenern, Cyrill von Jerusalem
susceperunt exhihens, catechumenis und Johannes Chrysostomus, pp.
et aliis quibuslibet, qui Christiani 47 sqq., Wursburg 1903.

non sunt, ne dedcris; et si hcrum 58 Tract, in loa., 96, n. 3:

exemplar transcripseris, per Domi- " Catechumenis sacramenta fidelium

num rogo, hoc monitum praefigas." non prodantur." (Migne, P. L.,

(Migne, /. c, 366). XXXV, 1857).

east. Cyril, Catech., 6, n. 29: ^9 Apud Denzinger-Bannwart, n.

" De mysteriis neque apud catechu- 98: "Verba vera dicere non pos-

menos palam verba facimus." sum, ne magis prodere videar quam

(Migne, /. c, 590). ad consultationem respondere." On

C7 Horn, in i Cor., 40, n. 1 : the discipline of the secret cfr.

" Volo quidem aperte hoc dicere, sed Schelstrate, De Disciplina Arcani,

non possum propter non initiatos." Rome 1685. See also Bollinger,

54 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

y) No donbt the development of the septenary num-
ber was impeded by the discipHne of the secret. But even
after that discipHne had been aboHshed, a long time elapsed
before the number became definitively fixed. No progress
could be made in this direction until a precise definition
had been worked out. " For that definition being the
unit of the septenary number of the Sacraments, so long
as it did not exist, the number could not be given." ^'^ The
work of synthesis remained for the speculative theologians
of a later age. Nor was it an easy matter, because each
Sacrament is a complete and independent unit. Thus the
Eucharist has no intrinsic connection with Matrimony.
Both were in use as efficacious symbols of grace from the
very beginning. The double task of working out the
generic definition of a Sacrament, and applying it to each
of the seven symbols officially in use, proceeded rather
slowly. " Sacramental practice antedates the systematic
elaboration of a sacramentary theology. This is to be
expected, for the latter is but a scientific statement of
the former : lex orandi, lex credendi." ^^ Sacramental
theology was elaborated in the course of a long process
of theological speculation, and the Church did not define
the septenary number as an article of faith until the Prot-
estant Reformers had expressly denied it.°^

b) A difficulty arises from the fact that St.
Ambrose and St. Bernard apparently regarded
the washing of feet on Holy Thursday ^^ as a Sac-

Lehre von der Eucharistie in den derten, pp. 303 sqq., Tubingen 1873.

ersten drei Jahrhunderten, pp. 12 60 Pourrat, Theology of the Sac-

sqq., Mainz 1824; Theo. H'arnack, raments, p. 257.

Der christliche Genieindegottesdienst 01 Pourrat, /. c, p. 259.

im apostolischen Zeitalter, pp. i sqq., 62 Cfr. Franzelin, De Sacram. in

Erlangen 1854; Probst, Kirchliche Geneve, thes. 19.

Dissiplin in den ersten drei Jahrhun- 63 Cfr. John XIII, 8 sqq.

THE NUMBER SEVEN 55

rament. That this ceremony is not a Sacrament
cannot be convincingly demonstrated except in the
light of ecclesiastical Tradition. The Mennonites
recognize the lotio pedum as a true Sacrament.
In rejecting this teaching modern Protestantism
unwittingly employs the Catholic criterion of Tra-
dition.

a) St. Ambrose says in his De Mysteriis, VI, 32:
" Miindus erat Petrus, sed plantam lavare debebat; habe-
bat enim primi parentis de successione peccatum, quando
eum supplantavit serpens et persuasit errorem. Ideo
planta eins abluitur, ut hereditaria peccata tollantur;
nostra enim propria per baptismum relaxantur." ^* Does
this mean that the washing of feet is a Sacrament or-
dained for the forgiveness of sins, like Baptism, or do
the phrases primi parentis peccatum and hereditaria
peccata merely signify concupiscence {fames peccati) ?
Evidently the latter, for St. Ambrose says in another
passage: " Lavemus et pedes, ut calcanei lubricum [that
is, concupiscence] possimus auferre, quo fida statio possit
esse virtiitum." ^^ More light is thrown on the Saint's
meaning by the anonymous author of the six books De
Sacramcntis, which is probably " not a later imitation
or recension of the De Mysteriis, but the same work pub-
lished indiscreetly and in an imperfect fonn by some
disciple of Ambrose." ^^ We read there. III, 1,7: " Qui
lotus est, non indiget nisi ut pedes lavet. Quare hoc?
Quia in baptismate omnis culpa diluitur. Recedit ergo
culpa, sed quia Adam supplantatns est a diabolo et vene^

64 Migne, P. L., XVI, 398. 06 Bardenhewer-Shahan, Patrol-

en In Ps., 48, n. 9 (Migne, P. L., ogy, p. 438.
XIV, 1159).

56 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

num [concttpiscentia] ei effusum est supra pedes, ideo
lavas pedes, ut in ea parte, in qua insidiatus est serpens,
maius suhsidium sanctiUcationis accedat, quo postea te
supplantare non possit. Lavas ergo pedes, ut laves ve-
nenum serpentis." " St. Ambrose's special interest in the
ceremony probably grew out of the custom, in vogue at
Milan, of washing the feet of neophytes after Baptism, —
a practice unknown at Rome, as Ambrose himself tells
us.^^ Augustine distinctly asserts that this custom was
peculiar to the Church of Milan and that it was rejected
and discontinued in many places where it had been
adopted.^'' The fact thus reliably attested, that the lotio
pedum was merely a local and transient practice, is suf-
ficient proof that it was not a Sacrament, for a true Sac-
rament is universal both as regards time and place.

)S) In the light of this explanation it is easy to under-
stand how St. Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) could re-
fer to the lotio pedum as a Sacrament at a time when be-
lief in the septenary number of the Sacraments was al-
ready wide-spread. He writes : " Ut de remissione
quotidianorum mimme duhitemus, habemus eius sacra-
mentum, pedum ablutionem. . . . Et unde scimus, quia
ad diluenda peccata quae non sunt ad mortem [i. e. venia-
lia] et a quibus plane cavere non possumus ante mortem,
ablutio ista pertineatf Ex eo plane quod offerenti manus
et caput pariter ad abluendum responsum est: Qui lotus

67 De Sacrain., Ill, i, 7 (Migne, tius servatur et nos rectius custodi-
P. L., XVI, 433). mus."

68 De Sacram., Ill, i, 5. " Ec- 69 Cfr. St. Augustine, Ep. 55 ad
clesia Romana lianc consuetudinem lanuar., n. 33: " Scd ne ad ipsum
non habet, cuius typum in omnibus sacramentum baptismi videretur [lo-
sequimur ct formam. . . . In omni- tio pedum] pertinere, multi hoc in
bus cupio sequi Ecclesiam Roma- consuetudine recipere noUierunt ;
nam; sed tamen ei nos homines sen- nonnulli etiam de consuetudine ati-
sum habemus, ideo quod alibi rec- ferri non dubitaverunt." (Migne,

P. L., XXXIII, 220).

THE NUMBER SEVEN 57

est, etc." ^° In writing thus he cannot have meant to
designate the annual ceremony of washing the feet on
Holy Thursday as a true Sacrament. The passage may
be satisfactorily explained without such an unlikely as-
sumption. What benefit could the faithful derive from a
Sacrament that, having been instituted for the remission
of "daily sins," was administered only once a year?
Clearly St. Bernard employed the term Sacrament in the
wider sense in which it was still used in his day. He
regarded the lotio pedum as a " sacramental." "

Readings:— Besides the current text-books on sacramental
theology see Val. Grone, Sacramentum oder Begriff und Bedeu-
tiiiig von Sakramcnt in der altcn Kirche bis zur Scholastik, Ber-
lin 1853. — P. Schanz, Der Begriff des Sakranientes hci den
Vdtern, in the Theologische Quartalschrift of Tubingen, 1891.—
P. Schmalzl, Die Sakramente des Alien Testamentes im all-
gcmcincn nach der Lchre des hi. Thomas, Eichstatt 1883.

On the number of the Sacraments cfr. Hahn, Doctrinae Romae
de Numero Sacramentorum Septenario Rationes Historicae, Bres-
lau 1859 (Prot.), and against him, Bittner, De Numero Sacra-
mentorum Septenario, Breslau 1859.— Jos. Bach, Die Siebcnzahl
der Sakramente, Ratisbon 1864.

70 Serm. in Coena Domini, n. 4 cram, in Genere, pp. 289 sqq., and
(Migne, P. L., CLXXXIII, 271). Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dogmatische

71 For a fuller treatment of this Thcologie, Vol. IX, pp. 21 sqq.
subject consult Franzelin, De Sa-

CHAPTER II

THE THREE ESSENTIAL CONSTITUENTS OF A
SACRAMENT

The three essential constituents of a sacrament are:
(i) the visible sign, (2) invisible grace, and (3) di-
vine institution.

SECTION I

THE VISIBLE SIGN, OR MATTER AND FORM

As a body is composed of two constituents, the
one indeterminate and the other determining, so,
too, a Sacrament has two elements, matter and
form.^

Thesis I: The Sacraments of the New Testament
are externally consummated by two elements, the one
indeterminate (res), the other determining (verbum).

This proposition is Udei proxima.

Proof. For a full explanation of the concepts
involved we must refer the student to that branch
of philosophy called Cosmology.^ Both res (the
element and its application or use, — technically,
remote and proximate matter) and verbiim
(the word, in the wider sense of any sign indicat-
ing consent) are officially defined as essential con-
stituents of a Sacrament in the statement of
doctrine drawn up by Eugene IV for the Ar-
menian delegates at the Council of Florence,
where we read, inter alia: "Every Sacrament
requires three constituents: — things for its mat-

1 Cfr. Wilhelm-Scannell, Manual 2 See, for instance, Haan, Philoso-

of Catholic Theology, Vol. H, pp. phia Naturalis.
361 sq.

6o THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ter, words for its form, and the person of the
minister conferring the Sacrament with the in-
tention of doing what the Church does; if any
one of these be wanting, there is no Sacrament." ^

As Pope Eugene IV did not intend to issue a dogmatic
definition on the subject but merely to give an account of
the common teaching and practice of the Western
Church,^ some of the inferences drawn from his statement
by Dominicus Soto ^ and other theologians are manifestly
strained. We are not dealing here with an article of
faith, so far as philosophical terminology is concerned.
However, our thesis embodies the teaching of the Church
and might be raised to the dignity of a dogma at any time.

a) That a Sacrament must contain an "ele-
ment" and a "word" can be stringently proved
from Holy Scripture only for the Sacrament of
Baptism. Eph. V, 26: "By the laver of water
in the word of life." ®

In regard to Confirmation,'^ the Holy Eucharist,^ and
Extreme Unction,^ this is merely intimated. But Tradi-
tion abundantly supplies what is lacking in Biblical teach-
ing. The Fathers insist that both a res and a verbum

S Decretum pro Armenis: " Om- ^Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i,

nia sacramenta tribus perficiuntur, qu. i, art. 6: " Fidei est catholi-

vid. rebus tamqiiam materia, verbis cae, sacramenta constare rebus et

tamquam forma, et persona ministri verbis, quod sine manifesta hae-

conferentis sacramentum cum in- rest ncgari non potest."

tentione faciendi, quod facil Ec- 6 Eph. V, 26 : " Lavacro aquae in

clesia; quorum si aliquid desit, non verba vitac."

perficitur sacramentum." (Denzin- 7 Acts VIII, 15 sqq.

ger-Bannwart, n. 695). 8 Matth. XXVI, 26.

4 Franzelin, De Traditione, p. 9 James V, 14,
120.

MATTER AND FORM

enter into the constitution of a Sacrament. St. Au-
gustine says : " Take away the word, and what is water
but water? The word is added to the element, and there
is a Sacrament." ^° This teaching has been preserved and
handed down by the churches separated from Rome ^^
and is confirmed by the authority of the Scholastics.^-

b) As regards the Sacraments of the Old Testament
(circumcision, the eating of the paschal lamb, certain
lustrations, etc.), theologians hold that they did not
consist of res et verbitm but merely of res et actio, because
of St. Paul's reference to the Old Law as " having a
shadow of the good things to come, [but] not the very im-
age of the things." ^^ The occasional employment of
words in connection with these rites was either unessen-
tial or of purely human institution. St. Thomas ^* gives
three reasons why it is fit that the Sacraments of the New
Testament should be superior to those of the Old, not only
in interior effect but also with regard to the external rite .
( I ) The analogy between the Sacraments and the Incar-
nation. In the Sacraments, "the word is joined to the
sensible sign, just as in the mystery of the Incarnation
God is united to sensible flesh." (2) The conformity of
the Sacraments to their human recipients, who are com-
posed of soul and body. (3) The superior power of
signification peculiar to a definite word over indefinite

10 Tract, in loa., 80, n. 3:
" Detrahe verbum et quid est aqua
nisi aqua? Accedit verbum ad ele-
tnentum et fit sacramentum."

11 Cfr. Schelstrate, Acta Orient.
Ecclcsiac, Vol. I, p. 505, Rome 1739;
Dcnzinger, Rittis Orientalium, 2
vols., Wiirzburg 1863-64; Gass,
Symbolik der griechischen Kirche,
p. 233. Berlin 1872.

12 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Thco-
logica, 3a, qu. 60, art. 6, ad 2:

" Ex verbis et rebus fit quodam-
modo unum in sacramcntis sicut for-
ma et materia, inquantum scilicet
per verba perficitur significatio
rerum."

13 Heb. X, i: " Umbram fu-
turorum bonorum, non ipsam ima-
ginem rerum."

14 Summa Thcol., 3a, qu. 60, art.
6. Cfr. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente
dcr kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed.,
pp. 50 sqq., Freiburg 1902.

62 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

symbolical acts, such as those employed under the Old
Law.

Thesis II: The "sensible element" in a Sacrament
corresponds, in philosophical parlance, to "matter," the
"word" to "form," and the two are related to each other
as materia and forma in the Scholastic sense of these
terms.

This proposition may be technically qualified as
certa.

Proof. The use of the terms "matter" and
"form" in the theology of the Sacraments can be
traced to William of Auxerre (d. 1223).^^ It was
adopted by the Church ^^ and received official
sanction at the Council of Trent/^ To reject
it, therefore, would be foolhardy.

a) The application to the theology of the Sac-
raments of the famous Aristotelian distinction be-
tween matter and form, is most appropriate and
illuminating.

As matter and form coalesce into one whole, which is
separate and distinct from each of its component parts, so
res and verbum constitute one complete sign, which is
neither a mere element nor a mere word.

Again, as matter, being undetermined, is generically de-

15 Several of the Fathers (e. g. ut supra, p. 60, n. 3 ; the Bull " Inter

St. Augustine, De Peccatorum cunctas " of Martin V (quoted in

Mentis et Remissione, I, 34) speak Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 672).

of a forma in connection with the 17 Cone. Trident., Sess. XVI, cap.

Sacraments; however, they mean by 2 and " De Extrema Unctione,"

it not the mere words of administra- Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 895 and

tion, but the entire external rite. 908.

10 Cfr. the Decretutn pro Armenis,

MATTER AND FORM 63

termined by the form, so is the res raised to the rank of
a sacramental sign by the differentiating power of the
verbiim.

Furthermore, as matter and form intrinsically supple-
ment and perfect each other, so, too, do res and verhimi.
However, since res and verhum do not represent a physi-
cal but merely a moral totum {i. e. one depending on the
free choice of Christ), the terms must be taken analogi-
cally. The union of res and verhum in a Sacrament is not,
therefore, a physical but a purely moral synthesis, which
does not demand that the component parts co-exist. Thus
a penitent who confesses his sins may be validly absolved
a day later, because the " element " or act of confession,
and the " word " which determines it, despite the inter-
val between them, constitute one moral act. The place
of the " word " which is to determine the " thing " cannot
be taken by some symbolic act, as, e. g., washing a person
with water instead of pronouncing the formula of Bap-
tism. There are many ablutions with diverse symbolic
meanings, and the action remains indeterminate so long as
there is no forma in the shape of a determining word.

In some Sacraments, notably Penance and Matrimony,
it is not easy to say precisely wherein matter and
form consist, but this difficulty has not deterred theolo-
gians from insisting that somewhere and somehow both
must be present.

An exception is made by the Scotists and Vasquez in
favor of the Holy Eucharist, which they regard as a
" permanent Sacrament " and the only one not consti-
tuted by a union of matter and form. But this theory is
untenable in view of the Decretum pro Armenis, quoted
above. Moreover, the Holy Eucharist demonstrably has
both res and verhum, matter and form.^^

i8Cfr. Tepe, Instit. Thcol., Vol. IV, pp. 15 sqq., Paris 1896.

64 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

b) If "element" and "word" are related to
each other as matter and form, it follows that
every Sacrament must consist of matter and
form.

Scotus and his followers admit that all the Sacraments,
inchtding the Eucharist, Penance, and Matrimony, grow
out of an " element " and a " word," but they deny that
each is essentially composed of res and verbum as matter
and form. And yet the latter proposition follows logic-
ally from the former. That which originates from a
union of matter and form, must necessarily consist of
matter and form. Now, the Decretum pro Armenis says :
" Omnia sacramenta perficiuntur rebus tamquam ma-
teria, verbis tamquam forma," which is virtually the
same as the teaching of the Roman Catechism that
matter and form " are parts pertaining to the na-
ture and substance of the Sacraments, and by which
each Sacrament is necessarily constituted." ^^ Hence
we maintain with St. Thomas that, since a Sacrament
is divisible into matter and form as distinct parts of its es-
sence, every Sacrament consists of an element and a
word.2o

Cardinal Lugo holds ^^ that, as the Decretum, pro Ar-
menis mentions the intention of the minister, this enters
into the intrinsic constitution of a Sacrament quite as
much as matter and form. But the opinion is untenable.
A Sacrament is constituted by matter and form; the

19 p. II, cap. I, n. 15: " Haec 2: " Qnodlibct sacramentum di-
igitur Iscil. materia et forma'] sunt stinguitur in materiam et formam
partes, quae ad naturam et substan- siciit in partes esscntiae. Unde
tiam sacramentorum pertinent et ex supra dictum est, quod sacramenta
quibus unumquodquc sacramentum consistunt in rebus et verbis."
necessario constituitur." 21 De Sacrament., disp. 2, sect.

20 Sumnia TheoL, 3a, qu. 90, art. 5.

MATTER AND FORM 65

intentio miwistri is merely a condition of valid adminis-
tration.^-

22 On the materia and forma of cramentis Ecclesiae, Vol. I, sect. 3,

the Sacraments the student may Freiburg 1897; Heinrich-Gutberlet,

consult Franzelin, De Sacramentis Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IX,

in Genere, thes. 4; Sasse, De Sa- § 482.

SECTION 2

INTERNAL GRACE, OR SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS

In this Section we have to consider, not the
efficacy of the Sacraments, nor the manner in
which they produce their effects (modus eifici-
endi),^ but these effects themselves.

The Catholic Church teaches : ( i ) that through
the Sacraments "all true justice either begins, or,
when already begun, is increased, or having been
lost, is repaired;"^ (2) that three Sacraments,
vis.: Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders,
imprint an indelible mark upon the soul.

ARTICLE I

EFFECTS COMMON TO ALL THE SACRAMENTS

All the Sacraments confer sanctifying grace, but, in
addition, each one confers a special grace pecuHar to its
object. This is commonly called gratia sacramentalis.
The amount of sanctifying and special grace bestowed by
a Sacrament depends chiefly on the disposition of the
recipient.

We shall demonstrate these statements in three distinct
theses.

1 V. infra, Ch. Ill, pp. 121 sqq. vera iitstifia vel incipit vel coepta
3 Concilium Trident., Sess. VII, augetur vel amissa reparatur."
Prooem.: "Per sacramcnta omnis

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 67

Thesis I: All the Sacraments confer sanctifying
grace.

This proposition embodies an. article of faith.

Proof. The Tridentine Council defines: 'Tf
anyone saith that grace, as far as God's part is
concerned, is not given through the said Sacra-
ments always and to all men, even though they
receive them rightly, but [only] sometimes and
to some persons, let him be anathema." ^ Hence
all the Sacraments without exception infallibly
confer sanctifying grace when they are worth-
ily received.

a) This teaching can be demonstrated from
Scripture and Tradition. Both the Bible and
the Fathers designate "regeneration of God" as
the principal effect of Baptism. "Regeneration"
is identical with justification,^ which is produced
by the infusion of sanctifying grace. Conse-
quently, Baptism confers sanctifying grace.
What is true of Baptism, must also be true of
the other Sacraments, since they are essentially
rites of the same nature.^ Besides grace, the Sac-
raments impart the three divine virtues of faith,
hope, and charity, the infused moral virtues, and
the other concomitants of sanctifying grace.®

3 Cone. Trident., Scss. VII, can. anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-

7: "Si quis dixerit, non dari wart, n. 850).

gratiam per huiiismodi sacramcnta 4 See Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual

semper et omnibus, quantum est and Habitual, pp. 314 sq.

ex parte Dei, ctiamsi rite ea su- G V. supra, Ch. I, Sect. 2.

scipiant, sed aliquando et aliquibus, 0 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, op. cit., pp.

362 sqq.

68 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

The well-known division into Sacraments of
the living and Sacraments of the dead is based on
the distinction between first and second justifica-
tion, with which we have dealt in our treatise on
Grace/

The Sacraments of the living are : Confirma-
tion, the Holy Eucharist, Extreme Unction, Holy
Orders, and Matrimony. The Sacraments of the
dead: Baptism and Penance. For further in-
formation we must refer the reader to the spe-
cial treatises to follow this introduction.

b) Although the Sacraments of the living can
be worthily received only in the state of grace,
theologians have raised the question whether, and
under what conditions, these Sacraments may
confer the iiistiflcatio prima, and thereby, at least
indirectly {per accidens), produce the same efifects
as the Sacraments of the dead.

It is certain that the Sacraments of the dead, when
conferred on a person already justified by an act of per-
fect contrition, increase sanctifying grace and conse-
quently effect the iustificatio secunda. Similarly, it
is probable that the Sacraments of the living, under cer-
tain conditions, restore sanctifying grace, and conse-
quently effect the iustificatio prima. St. Bonaventure
and De Lugo deny this proposition, so far as the Holy
Eucharist is concerned. But ranged against them are such
eminent older theologians as Suarez, Viva, St. Thomas ^

7 Op. cit., pp. 388 sqq.

8 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 72, art. 7, ad 2.

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 69

and his entire school, and nearly all modern authors.
The controversy cannot be decided from Tradition, but
there is a strong theological argument in favor of the
Thomistic view. The Tridentine Council teaches : " If
anyone saith that the Sacraments of the New Law . . .
do not confer grace on those who do not place an
obstacle thereunto, ... let him be anathema." ^ Now
it may easily happen that a sinner, believing himself to
be in the state of grace, receives a Sacrament of the liv-
ing with only imperfect contrition. Are we to assume
that in such a case the Sacrament is utterly ineffective?
There is no obstacle placed in the way of grace, since
the sinner is in good faith and truly sorry for his sins.
Hence, if the Sacrament has any effect at all, it must be
to establish the state of grace. This can be easily
shown of the Sacrament of Extreme Unction. St.
Thomas expressly asserts it of the Sacrament of Con-
firmation.^° It is equally true of Holy Orders and Matri-
mony, where good faith and attrition conjointly preclude
the possibility of sacrilege and remove the obex. Is the
Eucharist alone to form an exception, as De Lugo con-
tends ? St. Thomas emphatically denies it. " This Sac-
rament," he says, " can effect the forgiveness of sin in
two ways. First of all, by being received, not actually,
but in desire . . . ; secondly, when received by one in
mortal sin of which he is not conscious, and for which
he has no attachment; for possibly he was not suffi-
ciently contrite at first, but by approaching this Sacrament

0 Cone. Trident., Scss. VII, can. in pcceato c.ristcns, eiiius conscicn-

6: "Si quis dixerit, sacramenta tiam non habct, vel si etiam non

Novae Legis . . . gratiam ipsam non pcrfecte contritus [i. c. attritus]

poncntibus obicem non conferre, accedat, dummodo non fictus acce-

anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann- dat, per gratiam collatam in hoc

warl, n. 849). Sacramento consequctur rcmissioncm

10 Stimma Theol., 3a, qu. 72, peccatorum."
art. 7, ad 2: "Si aliquis adulttts

;o THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

devoutly and reverently, he obtains the grace of charity,
which will perfect his [imperfect] contrition, and bring
forgiveness of sin." "

Thesis II: Besides sanctifying grace, the Sacra-
ments confer each a special, the so-called sacramental
grace.

This proposition may be qualified technically as
sententia communis.

Proof, (a) The existence of a special sacra-
mental grace can be shown in three ways.

a) If the Sacraments produced no other effect
than sanctifying grace, there would be no need of
having seven of them. Yet the Church teaches
that all seven are necessary unto salvation, though
not for every individual. "If anyone saith that
the Sacraments of the New Law are not neces-
sary unto salvation, but superfluous, . . . though
all are not indeed necessary for every individual,
let him be anathema." ^^

P) If the Sacraments really "contain," i. e.
effect, the grace which they "signify," as the

11 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 79, art. missionem peccali." Cfr. De Au-

3: "Potest hoc sacramentum gustinis, De Re Sacramentaria, Vol.

operari remissionem peccati duplici- I, 2nd ed., pp. 275 sqq.; Heinrich-

ter : uno modo non pcrceptum actu, Gutberlet, Dogmatische Theologie,

sed voto . . .; alio modo etiani per- Vol. IV, § 493.

ceptum ah eo, qui est in peccato 12 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can.

mortali, cuius conscientiam et 4' " Si qiiis dixerit, sacramenta

affectum non habet. Forte enim Novae Legis non esse ad salutcm

primo non fuit sufRcienter contritus, ncccssaria, sed supeiHua, . . . licet

sed devote et revercntcr acccdcns omnia singulis ncccssaria non sint,

consequetur per hoc sacramentum anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-

gratiam caritatis, quae contritionem wart, n. 847).
[scil. imperfcctam} pcrficiet, et re-

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 71

Council of Trent declares/^ the different signs
must effect different graces, there must be as
many different graces as there are signs, and
hence the grace of Baptism cannot be identical
with the grace of Confirmation/^ and so
forth.

y) The Church teaches that the Sacraments
differ in dignity and worth. "If anyone saith,"
defines the same Council, "that these seven Sac-
raments are in such wise equal to each other as
that one is not in any way worthier than
another, let him be anathema." ^^ It would be
difficult to conceive this inequality, if there were
no difference in effect.^^

b) Regarding the exact nature of the sacra-
mental grace theologians are at variance.

The majority hold that the sanctifying grace conferred
by a Sacrament is of the same order and quality as that
obtained by prayer, merit, and perfect charity. Aureolus,
Paludanus, Eusebius Amort, and others have tried to ex-
plain the difference in the effects of the various Sacra-
ments by assuming the existence of habits specifically dis-
tinct from sanctifying grace and its accompanying virtues.
However, this assumption is gratuitous, ( i ) because sanc-
tifying grace with its concomitant theological virtues pro-
vides sufficiently for the habitual hfe of the soul, and (2)

13 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, nulla ratione aliud sit alio dignius,
can. 6. ". . . continent gratiam, anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-
quam significant." wart, n. 846).

14 Cfr. Acts VIII, 16 sqq. 16 For a more detailed treatment

15 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can. of this point cfr. Pescli, Praelect.
3: "Si quis dixerit, Itaec septem Dogmaticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp.
sacramenta esse inter se paria, ut 54 sqq.

72 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

because there is no basis for any such assertion in Revela-
tion.

How, then, are we to conceive the graces pecuHar to
the different Sacraments?

Billuart ^^ and other Thomist theologians contend that
sacramental grace consists in some mode of perfection
which ordinary grace lacks. Suarez ^® thinks sacramental
grace is a claim to those actual graces which correspond
to the particular object of the Sacrament. In both hy-
potheses sanctifying grace is the font and well-spring of
the gratia sacramentalis. The same grace (justification)
is conferred by all the Sacraments, but it exercises a dif-
ferent function in each. In Baptism it effects regenera-
tion, in Confirmation it confers spiritual manhood, in the
Holy Eucharist it nourishes the soul, and so forth.^^

The majority of modern theologians prefer to hold
with Suarez that the gratia sacramentalis is simply a
moral claim to actual graces, which are not conferred all
at once, but one by one, as they are needed, though al-
ways with reference to the Sacrament of which they are
the effects. However, there is nothing to prevent us from
meeting Billuart halfway by defining sacramental grace
as a permanent disposition or habit.""

n De Sacramentis, diss. 3, art. 5. St. Thomas; cfr. Sunima Theol., 3a,

isDe Sacramentis, disp. 7, sect. qu. 62, art. 2: " Sicut igitur vir-

3. tutes et dona addunt super gratiam

19 Decret. pro Armenis, in Den- communiter dictam quondam per-
zinger-Bannwart, n„ 695. Cfr. St. fectionem determinate ordinatam ad
Bonaventure, Comment, in Sent., proprios actus potentiarum [scil.
IV, dist. I, p. I, qu. 6: " Gratia animae'], it a gratia sacramentalis
sacramentalis est eadem per essen- addit super gratiam communiter
tiam cum gratia virtutum [i. e. sane- dictam [i. e. habitualem'] et super
tificante], licet gratia sacramentalis virtutes et dona quoddam divinum
plures connotet effecttts." auxilium ad conseqiiendum sacra-

20 Cfr. Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dog- mcnti finem." See also De Augu-
mat. Theol., Vol. IV, pp. 151 sqq. ; stinis, De Re Sacramentaria, Vol. I,
Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente der kath. 2nd ed., pp. 278 sqq., and De Lugo,
Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 93 sqq. De Sacramentis, disp. 4, sect. 3.
This teaching is based on that of

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 73

Thesis III: The amount of grace conferred by a
Sacrament depends on the disposition of the re-
cipient.

This thesis is also senfentia communis.

Proof. The Tridentine Council, speaking of
the justification of adult sinners, teaches:
". . . and we are . . . just, receiving justice
within us, each one according to his own measure,
which the Holy Ghost distributes to every one
as He wills, and according to each one's proper
disposition and co-operation." ^^

That is to say, the amount of grace conferred by a
Sacrament in each instance depends (i) on the eternal
decree of God, who has endowed each Sacrament with a
definite measure of grace, and (2) on the disposition
and co-operation of the recipient. Note, however, that
every Sacrament is efficacious e.v opere operato, and con-
sequently the disposition of the recipient is not the cause
of grace, but merely a condition of a richer outpouring of
the same, just as the dryness of a stick of wood is not the
cause of its burning, but a condition of its being more
rapidly consumed by the flames.-^

a) The Tridentine teaching is in perfect con-
formity with the mind of the Fathers.

St. Cyril admonishes his catechumens about to receive
Baptism : " Cleanse thine vessel, that it may receive a

21 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, cap. cundwn propriam cuiiisque dispositi-

7: "... iiistitiam in nobis recipi- oncm et cooperaiioncm." (Den-

entcs, unusquisque swam secundum zingcr-Bannwart, n. 799).

mcnsuram, quam Spiritus Sanctus 22 Cfr. Franzclin, De Sacramentis

Partitur singulis prout vtilt, et se- in Gencrc, thes, 6.

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

greater measure of grace. Forgiveness of sins is granted
to all alike, but the communication of the Holy Ghost is
given to each according to the measure of his faith. H
thine effort be but slight, thou wilt receive little; but if
thou dost much, thine reward will be great." ^^ It is for
this same reason that the Church constantly exhorts the
faithful to serve God more ardently, in order that they
may receive a richer reward. St. Thomas voices the
conviction of the Schoolmen when he says : " All chil-
dren are equally disposed to Baptism, ... all receive an
equal effect in Baptism; whereas adults , . . are not
equally disposed; for some approach with greater, some
with less, devotion, and therefore some receive a greater,
some a smaller share of the grace of renewal."

b) Revelation does not tell us whether or not
Sacraments of a different order (e. g. Baptism
and the Holy Eucharist), all other things being
equal, confer an equal amount of grace.

Objectively the Holy Eucharist is the most perfect of
the Sacraments, and consequently we may assume that
from the nature of the case and regardless of the disposi-
tion of the recipient, it confers a larger share of grace
than the others. Those theologians who, in addition to the
disposition and co-operation of the recipient mentioned by
the Tridentine Council, postulate other external condi-

23 Catech., I, cap. 5 (Migne,
P. C. XXXIII, 378). Other Pa-
tristic texts in Suarez, De Sacram.,
disp. 7, sect. 5.

24 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 69, art.
8: "... omnes pueri aequaliter
se habent ad baptismtim, . . . omnes
aequalem eff actum percipiunt in bap-
tismo. Adulti vera . . . non ce-

qualiter se habent ad baptismum.
Quidam enim cum maiore, quidarn
cum minore devotione ad baptismum
accednnt, et idea quidam plus, qui-
dam ininus de gratia novitatis ac-
cipiunt." Cfr. De Augustinis, De
lie Sacrament., Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp.
294 sqq. ; Tepe, Inst. Theolog., Vol.
IV, pp. 50 sqq.

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 75

tions, merely voice their private opinion and speak with-
out sufficient warrant. Paludanus -^ engages in guess-
work when he says that the amount of grace conferred by
Baptism is unequal even in infants, because the number of
human beings to be saved and the degree of happiness to
be enjoyed by each in Heaven must correspond to the num-
ber and beatitude of the Angels. Scotus -'' and Gabriel
Biel hold that God increases the amount of grace con-
ferred by the Sacraments in some cases according to His
absolute decree of predestination, or by reason of a spe-
cial application of the merits of Jesus Christ, or in con-
sideration of the personal worthiness of the minister of
the Sacrament and those who happen to be present during
its administration. Such greater lavishness on the part of
God in regard to certain persons is, of course, possible,
but there is nothing to show that it actually takes place,
and if it did, it would most assuredly be a special privilege
outside the lex ordinaria.^'^ Cardinal Cajetan thinks that
the amount of grace conferred by a Sacrament may be
increased by personal sanctity and prayer on the part of
the minister,-^ No doubt it makes a difference who ad-
ministers a Sacrament, whether he be a pious priest or one
imbued with a worldly spirit. A saintly minister by his
prayers, merits, and spiritual influence may procure many
actual graces for the recipient, thus disposing him better
personally and making him more receptive. But there
is no warrant for asserting that the amount of sanctifying
grace conferred by a Sacrament depends on the worthiness
of the minister.

25 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 4, borated by De Lugo, De Sacra-
<iu. I. mentis, disp. 9, sect. 2.

26 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 4, 28 Comment, in S. TIteol., Ill,
qu. 7. qu. 64, art. i.

27 This point is more fully cla-

•j^ THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ARTICLE 2

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER PECULIAR TO BAPTISM,
CONFIRMATION, AND HOLY ORDERS

Character^ in general signifies any mark or trait that
distinguishes a person or an object from others. In
Catholic theology it designates certain indelible spiritual
marks imprinted on the soul by the Sacraments of Bap-
tism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders.

I. The Existence of the Sacramental
Character. — That there is such a thing as the
sacramental character follows from the dogmat-
ically defined truth that the Sacraments of Bap-
tism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders each im-
press a special, supernatural, and inefifaceable
mark upon the soul of the recipient.

Wiclif claimed that this teaching cannot be
substantiated from Revelation.^ The Protestant
Reformers denied the existence of the sacramental
character. Chemnitz asserted that the "char-
acter" had been invented by Pope Innocent III (d.
1216).

The dogmatic teaching of the Church on this
point is beyond cavil. The Council of Florence
(A. D. 1439) declared: "Among these Sacra-
ments there are three, i. e. Baptism, Confirma-
tion, and Holy Orders, that indelibly imprint
upon the soul a character, i. e. a kind of spiritual

X Signum, figura, j^apa/CTiJp. 2 Trial., IV, 15.

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER

mark, distinct from all others, and this is the rea-
son why they cannot be administered more than
once to the same person. The other four do not
imprint a character and can be administered more
than once." ^ This definition was solemnly re-
iterated by the Council of Trent: "If anyone
saith that in the three Sacraments of Baptism,
Confirmation, and Holy Orders, there is not im-
printed on the soul a character, that is, a certain
spiritual and indelible sign, on account of which
they cannot be repeated, let him be anathema." *
Hence it is of faith that there is a sacramental
character, and that because of this character the
three Sacraments in question cannot be repeated,
a) Though this teaching is not directly de-
monstrable from Holy Scripture, it enables us to
interpret satisfactorily certain passages in the
Epistles of St. Paul which would remain obscure
in any other hypothesis.

Thus, the Apostle says that God " hath sealed us, and
given the pledge of the Spirit in our hearts." ^ And

3 Decretum pro Armenis: "Inter
haec sacramenta tria sunt: bap-
tismus, confinnatio et ordo, quae
charactcrem, i. e. spirituale quod-
dam signum a caeteris distinctivum,
imprimunt in anima indelebile , unde
in cadcm persona non reiterantur;
rcliqua vera quatinor charactercm
non imprimunt et reiterationcm ad-
tnittunt." (Denzingcr-Bannwart, n.

695).

4 Cone. Trident., Sess. \'II, can.
9: "Si quis dixerit, in tribus

sacramentis, baplismo scil., confirma-
tione et ordinc, non impruni aha-
racterem in anima, hoc est signum
quoddam spirituale et indelebile,
unde ea iterari non possunt, ana-
thema sit." (Denzinge'r-Bannwart,
n. 852).

5 2 Cor. I, 21 sq.: ". . . qui
tmxit nos Deus: qui et signavit
nos (6 Kal acppayiaafievos 'fifj.ds) ft
dcdit pignits Spiritus in cordibus
nostris."

78 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

again: "In whom [i. e. Christ] . . . beheving, you
were signed with the holy Spirit of promise," ^ And
again: "Grieve not the holy Spirit of God, whereby
you are sealed unto the day of redemption." ^ St. Paul
here tells his hearers: (i) You are anointed, (2) you
are sealed or signed, and (3) you have received the
pledge of the Spirit. " You are anointed " is manifestly
but another way of saying: You are justified {gratia
creata). "You have received the pledge of the Holy
Spirit " means : The Holy Spirit has descended upon
you and dwells in you {gratia increata). That the sig-
natio implied by the phrase " who hath sealed us " must
refer to the Sacraments, appears (a) from the general
economy of divine grace, in which internal grace is ordi-
narily communicated through the instrumentality of ex-
ternal signs, and (b) from the expression " unxit nos,"
which seems to imply an internal as well as an external
unction; just as " ahhitio" in the writings of St. Paul im-
plies both external and internal washing.^ This also ex-
plains what the Apostle means when he says that to grieve
the Spirit of God is to break the " seal of the Spirit," by
which we are sealed unto redemption.

Sacred Scripture indicates quite unmistakably that Bap-
tism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders can be received but
once.®

Some theologians hold that the " pignus Spiritus " does
not refer to the sacramental character, but to the " signum
Met " ^^ or to the charisma.^^ But it is a noteworthy fact

6 Eph. I, 13: "... in quo [scil. 8 Cfr. i Cor. VI, ii; Hebr. X, 22.
Christo] ct crcdentcs signati estis 9 For Baptism, cfr. Rom. VI, 10,
(eff4)payi<T9r]r€) Spiritti promissionis Eph. IV, 5, Heb. VI, 4 sq. ; for
Sancto." Confirmation, Acts XIX, i sqq. ;

7 Eph. IV, 30: " Nolite contri- for Holy Orders, 2 Tim. I, 6.
stare Spiritum, Sanctum Dei, in quo 10 St. Thomas Aquinas.
signati estis (iff(ppayicr6T]Te) in H Estius, Comely.

diem redemptionis."

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER

that the Church bases her traditional teaching of the char-
acter precisely on the PauHne passages which we have
quoted. It is from them that the Greeks drew their theory
of the baptismal " sphragis," which was all but universally
received in the second century/-

b) A convincing argument for the existence of
the "character sacramentalis" can be derived
from Tradition. St. Augustine defended it vig-
orously as an essential part of the sacramental
system of the Church.

In his Letter to Boniface ^^ he refers to the mark im-
printed by Baptism as " character dominiciis," i. e. a
mark belonging to Christ, the Chief Shepherd of the
flock and Leader of the Christian army.^* In his treatise
on Baptism against the Donatists he says : " Men put
on Christ, sometimes so far as to receive the Sacrament,
sometimes so much further as to receive holiness of life.
And the first of these may be common to good and bad
alike, but the second is peculiar to the good and pious."
And again : " But which is worse, not to be baptized at
all, or to be twice baptized, it is difficult to decide." ^^
Elsewhere St. Augustine compares the baptismal char-

12 Cfr. Pourrat, La Thaologie Sa-
cramentaire, pp. 196 sqq. ; Eng-
lish tr., pp. 217 sqq.

13 £/>., 98, n. 5: " Christianis
haptismi sacramentum , . . etiam
apud haereticos valet et suf-
ficit ad consecrationem, quamvis ad
vitae aeternae participationeni non
sulTiciat ; quae consccratio rcuni
quideni facit hacrcticiim extra
Domini gregem habcntem Domini-
cum charactercm, corrigendum
tamen admonet sana doctrine, non
iterum similiter consecrandum."

14 Cfr. Pourrat, Sacramental The-
ology, p. 229.

15 De Baptismo contra Donati-
stas, V, 24, 34: " Induunt homines
Cliristum aliquando usque ad sa-
cramenti perceptionem, aliquando et
usque ad vitae sanctificationem.
At que illud primum et bonis et
malis potest esse commune, hoc au-
tcm altcrum proprium est bonorum
et piorum." — Op. cit., II, 14, 19:
" Quid sit autem perniciosius, utrum
omnino non baptizari an rcbaptizari,
iudicare difficile est."

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

acter to the badge of a soldier and says that the same
simile may be applied to Confirmation and Holy Orders.^®
Thus, contrary to Harnack's claim/^ St. Augustine's
theory of the sacramental character is not an artificial
makeshift framed for the sake of expediency, but, in
the words of Pourrat,^^ " a living development of the sac-
ramental principles laid down by the practice of the early
Church, a development quite homogeneous with its start-
ing-point." ^°

St. Ambrose teaches : " Therefore we are sealed with
the Holy Spirit, not by nature, but by God, because it is
written : ' God hath anointed us and hath also sealed us.'
We are sealed with the Spirit, in order that we may
possess His splendor and image and grace, which is in-
deed a spiritual seal." -°

St. Chrysostom says : " Thus it happens that if you
leave the ranks [as a deserter], you can be easily recog-
nized by all ; for the Jews employ circumcision as a sign ;
we, the pledge of the Spirit." -^

St. Cyril of Jerusalem declares that the angels can tell

16 Contra Ep. Pannen., II, 13.
29: "An forte minus haerent sa-

cramenta Christiana qiiam corporalis
haec nota [i. e. militum'], quiim
videamus nee apostatas carere bap-
tismate, quibus utique per poeni-
tentiam redeuntibus non restitiiitur
et idea amitti non posse iudica-
iur."— Cfr. Contra Lit. Petit., II,
104, 239: "Quod [sacraincntnin
chrisniatis] in genere visibilium si-
gnaculorum sacrosanctum est, sicut
et ipse baptismus; sed potest esse
et in hominibus pessimis." — Contra
Ep. Parmen., II, 13, 28: " Utrum-
que [scil. baptismus et ordo'] sacra-
mentum est et quadam consecrations
vtrumque homini datur, illud quum
baptisatiir, illud quum ordinatur;

ideoque in catholica ecclesia utrum-
que non licet iterari."

17 Dogmengeschichte, Vol. Ill,
3rd ed., pp. 140 sqq., Freiburg
1896.

18 Op. cit., p. 231.

19 Cfr. Pourrat, op. cit., pp. 226
sqq.

20 De Spiritu Sancto, I, 6, 79:
" Sancto igitur Spiritu signati
sumus non natura, sed a Deo, quia
scriptum est : ' Quia un.rit nos
Deus et qui signavit nos.' Spiritu
signamur, ut splendorem atque ima-
gineni eius et gratiam tenere possir
mus, quod est utique spirituale
signaculum."

21 Horn, in 2 Cor., 3, n. 7.

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 8i

a Christian by the sacramental character imprinted on
his soul. " In battle," he writes, " the leaders distribute
badges to the combatants, by which friends can recognize
and help one another. . . . How is the Angel to recognize
thee ? How is he to rescue thee from thine enemies, if he
does not see thy badge ? How canst thou say : I belong
to God, if thou dost not wear His sign and badge ? " ^^

St. Ephraem Syrus writes : " The Holy Ghost im-
prints His sign upon His sheep with oil. As a sealing-
ring imprints an image on wax, so the secret sign of the
Holy Spirit is imprinted by means of oil on a person when
he is anointed in Baptism." -^

c) For a better understanding of the sacra-
mental character it will be well to study the ques-
tion of its duration and the Scholastic distinction
between sacramentum and res.

a) Does the sacramental character endure in the life
beyond ? The Tridentine Council has defined that it out-
lasts mortal sin, i. e. the loss of sanctifying grace, whence
we must conclude that it lasts at least till death. Theo-
logians regard it as certain that the sacramental character
survives after death, especially in the souls of the
elect. St. Cyril speaks of " a sign indelible for eter-
nity," -° and St. Thomas teaches : " The [sacramen-
tal] character remains after this life, both in the good
as adding to their glory, and in the wicked as increasing
their shame, just as the character of the military service
remains in the soldiers after the victory, as the boast of
the conquerors and the disgrace of the conquered." ^^

22 Procatech., n. 4. 2S Procatcch., n. 17: a4>payli

23 Assemani, Biblioth. Orient., I, dyefdXeiTrros els tovs alUvas-

95. 20 Suinma Thcol., 3a, qu. 63, art.

2i Pastor Hermae, Sim. VIII, 6. s, ad 3: "Post hanc vitam re-

82 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

The intrinsic reason for this indelibihty is that there is
no contrary quality or entity which can destroy the
sacramental character. God alone is able to destroy
it by direct interposition ; but God destroys no positive
entity except when compelled by a moral motive, as when
grace is destroyed by mortal sin. There is no such
motive imaginable in regard to the sacramental character,
which can co-exist with mortal sin, and serves two further
good purposes, — in Heaven to enhance the glory of God
and the reward of the elect, and in hell to shame the
reprobate sinners and make their punishment more se-
vere.-^

13) The Scholastic distinction between sacramentiim
and res arose in the twelfth century and is based on the
circumstance that the sacramental character is a sign,
like " matter and form," though invisible, while the latter
are visible. The Schoolmen distinguish between '' sacra-
mentum tantum," i. e. the external sign consisting of mat-
ter and form; "res tantum," i. e. the internal grace
effected by that sign ; ^^ and " res simul et sacr amentum,"
i. e. the character, which is both the result of a sign and
itself the sign of something else. In other words : In
every sacrament that imprints an indelible mark on the
soul, there is ( i ) something which merely signifies but is
not itself signified {id quod significat et non signiiicatur) ,
i. e. matter and form {sacramentiim tantum) ; (2) some-
thing which is merely signified but does not itself signify
anything {id quod significatur et non significat), i. e. in-
ternal grace {res tantum) ; (3) something which is both
signified and itself signifies {id quod significatur et signi-

manet character et in bonis ad vicerunt ad gloriam et in his qui
eorum gloriam et in malis ad eorum sunt victi in poenam."
ignominiam, siciU etiam militaris 27 Cfr. Billuart, De Sacram., diss.

character manet in militibus post 4, art. 2.

adeptam victoriam et in his qui 28 V. supra, pp. 59 sqq. and pp. 66

sqq.

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 83

Heat), i. e. the sacramental character {res simiil et sa-
cramentum). Considered as an effect of external grace
the sacramental character, like sanctifying grace, is both
signified and effected; considered as a spiritual mark, it
merely signifies, but does not effect, the presence of sanc-
tifying grace. Naturally {per se) the baptismal char--
acter postulates the grace of Baptism, the character of
Confirmation postulates the grace conferred by that par-
ticular Sacrament, and the sacerdotal character imprinted
by Holy Orders postulates the grace bestowed by ordina-
tion. Without sanctifying grace the sacramental char-
acter would be incomplete, crying by its very existence and
purpose for the spiritual life.^^

By way of analogy theologians have applied this dis-
tinction to the other sacraments, which do not confer a
character, trying to find in them something which could
take the part of res simul et sacramentum. This was
easy enough in the Holy Eucharist. For in this Sacra-
ment the external species may be regarded as sacramentum
tantum in so far as they merely signify without them-
selves being signified, while the grace (produced by com-
munion) is merely an effect but no sign, and hence there
was no difficulty in designating the body of Our Lord,
which both signifies (and effects) the internal grace, and
is also signified by the species, as res simul et sacramen-
tum. In the Sacrament of Matrimony the marriage bond
may be called res simul et sacramentum, inasmuch as it
is a passive sign, qua sacramental effect, and an active
sign, qua symbol of Christ's union with His Church. The
sacramentum tantum of Matrimony is its matter and
form, while the res tantum coincides with the internal
grace conferred by the Sacrament. The problem is some-
what more difficult in the case of Extreme Unction.

29 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 66, art. i.

84 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Suarez ^^ admits both views, i. e. that which regards the
"internal anointment" {vis.: the strengthening of the
soul) and that which considers the " alleviation of the
body " as the res et sacramentum. Perhaps it will be
best to combine these two effects into one. Penance, too,
offers a problem to the theologian who tries to apply to it
the Scholastic distinction of which we are treating. De
Lugo, after a critical examination of various theories,
gives it as his opinion that the res simul et sacramentum
of Penance, viewed in the light of the Tridentine teach-
ing,^^ is the " peace of mind " it effects.^-

2. In What the Sacramental Character
Consists. — With the possible exception of St.
Augustine, the Fathers did not discuss the ques-
tion: In what does the sacramental character
consist? The Scholastics tried to deduce some
definite conclusions from Patristic teaching and
conciliary definitions, but despite their ingenuity
it must be admitted that it is much easier to tell
in what the character does not consist, than in
what it consists.

a) Durandus regarded the sacramental [character as
a purely logical relation, resulting from a divine ordi-
nance or contract.^^ But since the Tridentine Council has

ZODe Sacram., disp. 41, sect. 3. pp. 122 sqq., Freiburg 1895; Schee-

31 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, cap. ben, Die 'Mysterien dcs Christen-
3. turns, 3rd ed., § 83, Freiburg 1912;

32 For a more exhaustive treat- Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dogmatische The-
ment of the topics dealt with in this ologie, Vol. IV, § 483, Mainz 1901.
subdivision see Billot, De Ecclesiae 33 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.
Sacramentis, Vol. I, 4th ed., thes. 4, qu. i : "Character nan est nisi
6, Rome 1907; E. Lingens, Die in- relatio rationis ex ordinatione vel
nere Schonheit des Christentums, pactione divina."

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 85

defined the character to be " a spiritual and indehble sign
imprinted on the soul," we are not permitted to treat it
as a mere figment of the mind. Nor does this theory
sufficiently safeguard the Catholic teaching against cer-
tain heresies. There are few heretics who would not be
willing to admit, for instance, that Baptism is the ground
for a purely logical relation, inasmuch as one who has re-
ceived this sacrament can never deny that he is " bap-
tized."

Scotus and some of his followers have been accused of
holding that the sacramental character is a real relation
(relatio realis) or " relative form." In matter of fact
Scotus himself treated this opinion merely as a hypothesis.
His own idea was that the sacramental character is an
" absolute form," and this teaching was espoused by
his immediate followers. The opinion attributed to Scotus
is untenable, because every real relation presupposes a
foundation that is real, and consequently cannot be con-
ceived without a forma absoluta. St. Thomas demon-
strates this as follows : " The relation signified by the
word ' sign ' must needs have some foundation. Now the
relation implied in this sign which is a ' character,' cannot
be founded immediately on the essence of the soul, because
then it would belong to every soul naturally, [i. e. in that
case all souls would have a character; Billuart]. Conse-
quently, there must be something in the soul on which
such a relation is founded ; and this is the character itself.
Therefore it need not be in the genus relation, as some
have held." ^^

34 Summa Tlieol., 3a, qu. 63, art. sentiam animae, quia sic conveniret

2, ad 3: "Relatio quae importatur omni animae naturaliter. Et idea

in nomine signi, oporlet quod super oportet aliquid poni in anitna, super

aliquid fundetur. Relatio autem quod fundctur talis relatio, et hoc

liuius signi, quod est character, non est essentia characteris. Unde non

potest fundari immediate super es- oportebit quod sit in gcncre rela-

86 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

b) From what we have said it follows that, like sanc-
tifying grace,^^ the sacramental character must be con-
ceived as a real entity, and consequently is either a sub-
stance or an accident. It cannot be a substance, hence
it must be an accident, and, since it is effected by a
Sacrament and imprinted on the soul, it must be a
supernatural accident. Such accidents belong to the cate-
gory of "quality" (TroioxTys). Consequently, the sacra-
mental character may be defined as a permanent quality
of the soul, and, in this respect, resembles sanctify-
ing grace.

The question, to which of the four Aristotelian species
of quality the sacramental character belongs, has given
rise to a variety of opinions.^*' Suarez says it is an in-
fused habit and reckons it among the " first species " of
quality." Others regard it as a spiritual " figure or
form " belonging to the " fourth species." Neither
theory is tenable. The sacramental character cannot be a
figure or form, nor a habit, because, unlike sanctifying
grace, it may be applied to both good and evil purposes.
Some theologians ^^ are inclined to define the character as
a " passihilis qmlitas" (the third species of quality), be-
cause it is a sign or mark distinguishing certain men from
others. But since the passible qualities are by nature
transient^" and have their proper place in the material
world, this explanation is equally unsatisfactory. The

tionis, siciit quidam posucrunt." Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and

The history of this controversy can Habitual, pp. 332 sq.

be read in Pourrat, Theology of 37 De Sacram., disp. 6, sect. 3, n.

the Sacraments^ French ed., pp. 6.

223 sqq., English tr., pp. 204 sqq. 38 E. g., Pesch, Praelect. Dogmat.,

35 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac- Vol. VI, 3rd ed., p. 84.

tual and Habitual, pp. 328 sqq. 39 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa

3G Cfr. Lehmen, Lehrhuch der TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 3: " Cha-

Philosophie auf aristotclisch-scho- ractcr nan est passio, quia passio cito

lastischer Grundlage, Vol. II, 2nd transit, character autem indelebilis

ed., pp. 398 sqq. Freiburg 1904; est."

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 87

most acceptable theory is that of St. Thomas, who classes
the sacramental character among the second species of
quality. The sacramental character, he says, " is not a
habit, because no habit is indifferent to acting well or ill,
whereas a character is indifferent to either, since some use
it well, some ill. Now this cannot occur with a habit,
because no one abuses a habit of virtue or uses well an
evil habit. It remains, therefore, that the character is a
power." *° Note, however, that the sacramental char-
acter does not confer a physical power. Those who are
baptized, confirmed, and in Holy Orders can accomplish
no more physically than others who have not received
these three sacraments. The power which the character
confers is, therefore, purely moral, and may be defined
as a supernatural power ordained unto things pertaining
to divine worship, according to the rite of the Christian
religion, whether such worship (cult us) consist in re-
ceiving divine gifts or in bestowing them upon others
(Billuart). Thus, God does not bestow the grace of an-
other Sacrament on any one who does not wear the bap-
tismal character, and He does not change bread and wine
into the body and blood of Jesus Christ except at the bid-
ding of one who has the sacramental character of Or-
ders.*^

Does the sacramental character reside in the substance
of the soul or in some particular faculty thereof? This
question also has given rise to a controversy. The Sco-
tists, in accord with their general teaching, hold that the
sacramental character resides in the will, while the Thoni-

40 L. c. : " [Characterl non est bus non cotitingit; nam habitu virtu-
habitus, quia nullus habitus est, qui lis nullus utitur male et habitu
se possii ad bene et male habere. malitiae nullus bene; ergo relinqui-
Character autem ad utrumque se ttir quod character sit potcntia."
habct; uliintur cnim eo quidam 41 Cfr. Billuart, De Sacram., diss.
hetie, alii vera male, quod in liabiti- 4, art. 2,

88 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ists assign it to the intellect. " A character needs to
be in the soul's cognitive power, where also is faith," says
St. Thomas.*^ Others *^ teach that the sacramental char-
acter resides in the very substance of the soul, because the
Tridentine Council employs the phrase, " imprinted in
the soul." As it is neither necessary nor advisable to
accept St, Thomas' radical distinction between the sub-
stance of the soul and its faculties, (in the adoption of
which the Angelic Doctor was perhaps unduly influenced
by his opposition to Scotism and Nominalism), we shall
probably do best if we assign the sacramental character
primarily to the substance of the soul and secondarily to
its faculties or powers, /. e. the intellect and the will.
This seems all the more acceptable in view of the fact
that the object of the character (which is, to confer the
ability to perform religious acts of worship) involves both
the intellect and the will.

3. The Object of the Sacramental Char-
acter.— As God does nothing without a purpose,
it is impossible to evade the question : For what
purpose was the sacramental character instituted ?
To avoid useless speculation, we shall limit our
discussion to the data furnished by divine Reve-
lation.

a) Recalling the passages previously quoted from St.
Augustine,** we say that the sacramental character im-
plies on the part of the recipient a sort of " consecra-
tion " — in the sense of objective sanctification {saccr,

42 Summa ThcoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 43 Notably Bellarmine, Suarez,

4, ad 3: " Oportet quod character sit and De Lugo.

in cognitiva potentia animae, in qua 44 V, supra, p. 79, notes 13, and

est fides." 15.

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 89

oo-tos), not subjective holiness (sancHis, ayto?).'*^ St.
Augustine, compelled by the Donatists to emphasize not
only the distinction between, but the actual separability of,
grace and character (sanctiftcatio and consecratio), in-
sisted that heretics may receive and sinners retain the sac-
ramental character without grace. St. Thomas went a
long step farther by defining consecratio as deputatio ad
divinum cult urn, i. e. a bestowal of the spiritual power
necessary to perform acts of divine worship.'*'' This is
plainly apparent in the Sacrament of Holy Orders. It
is not so apparent in Baptism and Confirmation. But the
passive receptivity which these Sacraments confer is
really an active power, vis.: the power, through Baptism,
to receive the other Sacraments, to participate in all the
rights and duties of a child of the true Church, and to
be a member of the mystic body of Christ ; and, through
Confirmation, the power of professing the Catholic faith,
if necessary at the risk of life, and of serving as a sol-
dier in the army of the Lord. All these functions con-
stitute necessary parts of Christian worship.

b) The very name character (xapaKx^p), and its de-
scription as a stamp or seal (signaculmn, af^payi'?, o-^pa-
yiaixa), indicate that it may be a threefold sign, viz.: (a)
signum distinctivum or a mark discriminating various ob-
jects; (2) signum obligativum, denoting a duty; (3)

46 The distinction between these aliquid certum deputatur, consuevit

two notions is explained in Pohle- ad illud consignari, sicut milites, qui

Preuss, God: His Knowability, Es- adscribcbantur ad militiam atitiqui-

sence, and Attributes, 2nd ed., pp. tus, solebant quibusdam characteri-

258 sq. bus corporalibus insigniri, eo quod

46 Cfr. Siunma TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, dcputabantur ad aliquid corporale.
art. i: " Sacramenta Novae Legis Et ideo quum homines per sacra-
ad duo ordinantur, vid. ad remedium mcnta deputentur ad aliquid spiritu-
contra peccatnm et ad perficicndam ale pertinens ad cultnm Dei, conse-
animam in his quae pertinent ad quens est quod per ea fideles aliquo
cultuin Dei secundum ritum chri- spirituali charactere insigniantur."
stianae vitae. Quicunque autem ad

90 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

signum configurativum, marking similarity. The im-
press of a seal or stamp produces a triple effect : it renders
an object recognizable, it marks the object as part of one's
property, and it produces in it a likeness of the owner.
The sacramental character exercises all these functions,
and in addition to them a fourth, namely, to prepare the
soul for grace. In this last-mentioned respect it is called
signum dispositivum.

a) The sacramental character is, first, a signum di-
stinctizmm or mark differentiating those who' are bap-
tized, confirmed or ordained, from those who have not re-
ceived these Sacraments. No one can belong to the ex-
ternal organism or body of the Church except he wear
the character of Baptism, and no one lacking the char-
acter of Holy Orders can perform the functions of a
priest. The character conferred by the Sacrament of
Confirmation is similar to that of Baptism, only perfected
and developed.

Though God and the angels require no sign to enable
them to tell whether a man belongs to the true Church or
to the priesthood, such a sign is by no means superfluous,
since God not only appoints men to office, but also gives
them the necessary interior qualification. An office that
is to be actually exercised requires a real foundation, and
it is this that the sacramental character supplies. But
even for us, who are unable to perceive it, the character is
not without meaning, because the visible reception of one
of the three sacraments in question infallibly guarantees
the possession of the invisible character.''^ The sacra-
mental character, therefore, retains its value as a distinc-

47 Cfr. Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 63, sacramentum imprimitur; per hoc

art. I, ad 2: "Character animac enim scitur aliquis esse baptismali

impressus habet rationeni signi [di- charactere insignitus, quod est ablu-

stinctivi], inquantum per sensibile tus aqua sensibili."

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 91

tive sign also in the world to come, where it will enhance
the happiness of the elect and add to the confusion of
the damned.

/3) The sacramental character is, secondly, a signum
obligativum, in so far as it marks a man as the inalienable
property of Jesus Christ, unites him indissolubly with the
God-man, whose sign and livery he wears, and lays upon
him the obligation of performing those acts of divine wor-
ship which the Sacrament, by virtue of its character, im-
poses as an official duty. By Baptism, Confirmation, and
Holy Orders respectively, the recipient is officially
marked and charged with certain specific duties. Bap-
tism imposes the duties of a subject ; Confirmation, those
of a soldier; Holy Orders, those of a minister of Jesus
Christ.*^

y) The sacramental character is, in the third place, a
signum configurativiim, inasmuch as it constitutes the soul
an image of God.*^ Not, of course, in the sense in which
man is a natural likeness of the Creator; nor in the sense
in which he is a supernatural image of God by sanctifying
grace. The sacramental character may be in the soul
without grace. St. Thomas Aquinas adopts the tech-
nical definition of Peter Lombard : " Character est di-
stinctio a Charactere aeterno [Christo] impressa animae
rationali secundum imaginem consignans trinitatem crea-
tam [anhnam] Trinitati creanti et recreanti." ^° This
definition, however, can be accepted only with the reser-
vation that every created effect (and the sacramental
character is a created effect) reflects in some way the

48 Cfr. Farine, Der sakramentale 3: "Actus characteris, a quo

Charakter, pp. :8 sqq., Freiburg nomen accepit, et principalis est

1904. configurarc."

40 Cfr. St. Botiavcnture, Com- co Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.

ment. in Sent., IV, dist. 6, p. i, qu. 4, qu. i, art. 2, sol. 2.

THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

image of the Blessed Trinity.^^ In contradistinction to
sanctifying grace, the supernatural configuratio or as-
similatio conferred by the sacramental character estab-
lishes a proper likeness to Christ, not indeed as if the
soul participated in His Divine Sonship,^- but in the sense
of sharing in His office of High Priest. By receiving the
sacramental character, a man is designated, empowered,
and placed under obligation to perform certain acts of
worship which bear a special relation to our Divine
Saviour's sacerdotal office.^^ Consequently, the sacra-
mental character, considered as a signum configurativum,
is not so much the character of the Holy Trinity, as that
of Christ the High Priest. Hence such Patristic phrases
as : character dominicus, ariyfia Xptarov, i. e. family mark
of Christ.^'* It would, however, be a mistake to suppose
that the God-man Himself is a high priest only by virtue of
a character in which He permits those who receive the
sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders
to share. Christ is our natural Mediator by virtue
of the Hypostatic Union, and, consequently, a High Priest
not by grace but by nature.^^ It is only in the light of
this teaching that i Pet. II, 9 : " You are a chosen gen-

51 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the Au-
thor of Nature and the Supernat-
ural, pp. 38 sqq.

52 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac-
tual and Habitual, pp. 356 sqq.

53 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Soteriology,
pp. 1 1 1 sqq.

5-t Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa
TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 3: " Depu-
tatur quisque fidelis ad recipiendum
vel tradenduin aliis ea quae perti-
nent ad cultum Dei, et ad hoc
proprie deputatur character sacra-
mentalis. Totus autem ritus chri-
stianae religionis dcrivatur a sacer-
dotio Christi. Et idea manifestum

est quod character sacramentalis
specialiter est character Christi, cu-
ius sacerdotio configitrantur fideles
secundum sacramentales characteres,
qui nihil aliud sunt quam quacdam
participationes sacerdotii Christi ab
ipso Christ 0 derivatae."

55 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Soteriology,
pp. 127 sqq. St. Thomas, Summa
TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 5: " Christo
non competit habere characterem,
sed potestas sacerdotii eius compa-
ratur ad characterem, sicut id quod
est plenum et pcrfectum ad aliquam
sui participationem."

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER

eration, a kingly priesthood," can be fully understood.
8) The sacramental character is, lastly, a signum dis-
positivum, a sign disposing the soul for the reception of,
and thereby bestowing a claim to, grace. Grace, as we
have shown in a previous treatise,^" is either sanctifying
or actual. The sacramental character, as a signum dis-
positivum for sanctifying grace, must not be conceived
as a " physical predisposition " for, or a " preliminary
stage" of, that grace (lumen semiplenum, diuiiniitum) ,^'^
because it is not a form of sanctification. The connec-
tion between character and grace is purely moral, and
may be described as a kind of affinity, inasmuch as the
sacramental character, in view of its purpose, ought
never to exist without sanctifying grace.^^ It is in this
light that the Fathers who wrote before St. Augustine
regarded the sacramental character, when they said that
it has an intrinsic relation to adoptive sonship, the in-
dwelling of the Holy Spirit in the soul of the just, and the
beatific vision of God in Heaven. Furthermore, the sac-
ramental character confers a moral claim to all actual
graces necessary for the worthy fulfilment of the office or
dignity conferred by the respective Sacrament.^^ De
Lugo, following the Fathers, enumerates still another
effect. The guardian angels, he says, watch with special
solicitude over the bearer of this " spiritual seal," while the

56 Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and
Habitual. V. supra Sect. 2, Art. i,
Theses I and II.

n? It is thus conceived by Alex-
ander of Hales, St. Bonaventure,
and the Franciscan school of theo-
logians generally.

08 Cfr. St. Bonaventure, Com-
ment, in Sent., IV, dist. 6, p. i, qu.
2, ad 3: " Character significat
gratiam, et quod ibi non sit, hoc est
ex defcctu suscipientis tantum,"

59 This is the teaching of St.
Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 63,
art. 3, ad i: "Character autem
directe et propinquc disponit animam
ad ea quae sunt divini cultus e.ve-
quenda. Et quia haec idonee non
fiunt sine au.vilio gratiae, . . . ex
coiisequenii divina largitas rccipicn-
tibtts charactcrem largitur gratiam,
per quarn digne impleant ea, ad
quae deptitantur."

94 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

demons are constrained to moderate their attacks upon
him.«°

c) It remains to explain why only three of
the Sacraments confer the character, while the
other four do not.

In declaring that Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Or-
ders confer the sacramental character, the Council of
Trent plainly intimates that the other four Sacraments
do not confer it. This is indeed the common teaching,
which can also be inferred from the fact that, according
to the Decretiim pro Armenis, the other four Sacraments
can be received more than once, for the reason that they
do not imprint the sacramental character.^^ But why do
only Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders confer
the character?

The sacramental character, as we have seen, is inti-
mately related to Christ's office of High Priest. We
know from Soteriology *'- that this office is inseparable
from our Lord's other offices of Prophet and King, and
that the three interpenetrate and limit each other. Now,
as there are three offices of the Redeemer, so there are
three offices among those whom He has redeemed. Each
of these has its special mark or character. Baptism
stamps the recipient a subject of Christ as King; Con-
firmation marks him as a courageous pupil of Christ in His
capacity of Prophet or Teacher; Holy Orders distin-
guishes him as a minister of the God-man in His capacity
of High Priest.

60 De Lugo, De Sacram., disp. mittunt." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
6, sect. 3, n. 44. 695).

61 Decret. pro Armen. : " Reliqua 62 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Soteriology,
vero quattuor characterem nan im- p. 158.

primunt et [idea] reiterationem ad-

THE SACRAMENTAL CHARACTER 95

The remaining four Sacraments do not thus empower
those who receive them to perform acts of pubHc wor-
ship. Penance and Extreme Unction are essentially
medicinal ; the Holy Eucharist, though the most sublime
of all the Sacraments, is rather a spiritual food and sig-
nifies the mystic union of the soul with Christ; Matri-
mony elevates to the sphere of grace, and thus sanctifies
and ennobles, the natural union between male and fe-
male. From a purely philosophical point of view there
is no reason why this latter Sacrament should not confer a
character. Like Holy Orders, it establishes a state of
life and represents an important office in the Church, in-
asmuch as it supplies those whom she is commissioned
to raise to the rank of children of God and citi-
zens of Heaven. Nevertheless, there is not between
Matrimony and the three offices of the Redeemer that
intimate connection which we have shown to exist be-
tween those offices and the Sacraments of Baptism, Con-
firmation, and Holy Orders. Hence there is no place in
the external organization of the Church for such a thing
as a sacramental character conferred by Matrimony.

Readings : — St. Thomas, Simma TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. 2. —
Billuart, De Sacramentis in Communi, diss. 3, art. 3-5. — *De
Lugo, De Sacram. in Genere, disp. 4, sect. 2-3. — *De Augiistinis,
De Re Sacramentaria, Vol. I, 2'nd ed., pp. 273 sqq., 294 sqq.,
Rome 1889.— Tepe, Instit. TheoL, Vol. IV, pp. 50 sqq., Paris
1896. — Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dogmat. Theologie, Vol. IV, § 492
sq., Mainz 1901. — N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramcnte der kath. Kirche,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., § 14 sq., Freiburg 1902. — De Bellevue, La Grace
Sacramcntelle, Paris 1900.

On the dogma of the character cfr. : St. Thomas, Summa
TheoL, 3a, qu. 63, art. i. — Billuart, De Sacramentis in Communi,

68 On the questions dealt with in Kirche, Vol. I, and ed., pp. 109 sqq.,
this subdivision of our treatise cfr. Freiburg 1902.
Gihr, Die hi. Sakramcnte dcr kath.

96 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

diss. 4, art. 1-3. — Bellarmine, De Sacram. in Genere, 1. II, cap.
18-20. — De Lugo, De Sacram. in Genere, disp. 6, sect. 1-4. —
*Franzelin, Dc Sacram. in Genere, thes. 12 sq., Rome 1888. —
De Augiistinis, De Re S acramentaria , Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 308
sqq. — P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, § 10, Frei-
burg 1893. — *Lorinser, De Charactere Sacramentali, Oppolii 1844.
— La Farine Der sakramentale Charakter, Freiburg 1904. — O.
Laake, Der sakramentale Charakter, Miinster 1903. — F. Brom-
mer, Die Lehre vom sakramentalen Charakter in- der Scholastik
bis Thomas v. Aquin inklusive, Paderborn 1908. — Garrett Pierse,
" The Origin of the Doctrine of the Sacramental Character," in
the Irish Theological Quarterly, Vol. VI (1911), No. 2, pp. 196-

211.

SECTION 3

THE SACRAMENTS INSTITUTED BY JESUS CHRIST

External sign and interior grace constitute the
two internal causes (materialis and formalis) of
a Sacrament. Its external or efficient cause
{causa efficiens) is its institution by our Lord and
Saviour Jesus Christ.

Christ is the author of the Sacraments in a
threefold sense : ( i ) He has merited their sanc-
tifying power by His passion and death; (2) He
has personally instituted them; and (3) He has
so determined the matter and form of each that
the Church cannot alter their substance, though
she is free to institute new ceremonies and sac-
ramentals. We shall demonstrate this in four
separate and distinct theses.

Thesis I: Christ Himself instituted all the Sacra-
ments in the sense that He alone, by His passion and
death, is their meritorious cause.

This proposition is de fide.

Proof. The Tridentine Council teaches : "If
anyone saith that the Sacraments of the New Law
were not all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord,

98 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

... let him be anathema." * Hence the institu-
tion of the Sacraments by Christ is an article of
faith, at least in this sense that they derive
their sanctifying power solely from the merits of
the atonement, and, consequently, owe their ex-
istence to the human will of our Lord.^

a) The principle underlying this thesis, (vis.:
that in the present economy there is and
can be no grace not derived from the merits of
Christ), has been sufficiently demonstrated in
Soteriology.^ If Christ is the meritorious cause
of the Sacraments, He must also be their au-
thor, inasmuch as against or without His will no
grace can be bestowed on those whom He has re-
deemed.* It follows that Christ is, either im-
mediately or mediately, the author of all the Sac-
raments.

b) From the speculative point of view the fol-
lowing considerations are pertinent.

a) In regard to the institution of the Sacraments we
may distinguish a threefold power: the divine potestas
auctoritatis, the theandric potestas excellentiae, and the
purely human potestas ministerii. The potestas auctori-
tatis belongs to God alone, the potestas excellentiae to
Christ in His human capacity, the potestas ministerii to
His ministers or representatives on earth.

1 " Si quis dixerit, sacramenta 2 V. Thesis II, infra, pp. loi sqq.

Novae Legis non fuisse omnia a 3 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Sotcriology,

lesu Christ 0 Domino nostra insti- pp. 5 sqq., St. Louis, 19 14.

tufa, ... anathema sit." (Sess. 4 Cfr. Matth. XXVIII. 18 sq.;

VII, can. 1; Denzinger-Bannwart, n. John XX, 21 sqq.; Rom. VI, 3 sq.;

844). 1 Cor. I, 13; Eph. V, 26.

DIVINE INSTITUTION 99

As regards the potestas auctoritatis, evidently no one
but God was able to attach internal grace to external
signs and thus to institute real sacraments. Hence if
such visible means of grace exist, they must owe their
existence to Him.

The Sacraments derive their origin from, and owe their
institution to, Christ, not only as God, but also as man. He
was the natural mediator between God and man both in
His divine and in His human nature. The graces which
He merited for us, and which He distributes through the
Sacraments, were merited in His human nature. Conse-
quently, in the institution of the Sacraments, Christ acted
not only with His divine but also with His human will.
Although His human activity asserted itself only in-
strumentally and ministerially, it was most excellent
for the reason that His humanity, on account of the Hypo-
static Union, must be considered as instrumentiim
coniiinctum of the Divinity and on account of its dignity
stands out as the causa ministerialis principalis. It fol-
lows that the Sacraments, while they are truly instrumen-
tal causes of interior sanctification, are merely instrumenta
separata, and their human administrators, though min-
isterial causes of the distribution of grace, are merely
causae ministeriales suhordinatae. Consequently, the hu-
man potestas nmiisterii mentioned above, is as far be-
neath the potestas excellentiae of Christ qua man, as the
potestas excellentiae is inferior to the divine potestas
auctoritatis.^

P) The potestas excellentiae Christ i, which is so
important a factor in the institution of the Sacraments,
operates in a fourfold manner.

5 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., its, ita inquantum homo, habet pa-

3a, qu. 64, art. 3: " Et idco sicut testatcm ministerii principalis sive

Christus, inquantum Deus, habet potestatem excellentiae."
potestatem auctoritatis in sacramen-

loo THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

( 1 ) The merits of Christ are the sole operative power
of all the Sacraments. This truth is the very foundation
and corner-stone of the Catholic doctrine of the Sacra-
ments.^

(2) Christ's potestas excellentiae also manifests itself
in the fact that there can be no Sacraments except those
administered in His name and by His power. The ad-
ministration and distribution of graces is entirely subject
to Him who has merited and accumulated them.'^

(3) There can be no Sacrament that does not depend,
either mediately or immediately, upon the human will of
Christ as its author; for it is as man that Christ is our
natural Mediator, the fount of grace, and the High Priest
of humanity.^

(4) The potestas excellentiae also reveals itself in this
that Christ, as man, is independent of the Sacraments,
inasmuch as He can remit sins and impart graces
without their instrumentality, — a prerogative denied to
His human representatives.'^

6 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa TheoL, dammodo nobis coptilatur per sus-

3a, qu. 64, art. 5: "Principalis ■an- ceptioneni sacramentornm."

tern causa efficiens gratiae est ipse 7 Cfr. Acts II, 38, VIII, 12; i

Deus, ad quern comparatur huniani- Cor. I, 12 sq.

tas Cliristi sicut instrumentum con- 8 V. Soteriology.

iunctum, sacramentum autem sicut 9 Matth. IX, 2 sqq. Cfr. St.

instrumentum separatum. Et idea Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 64,

oportet quod virtus salutifera a di- art. 3 : "... quae quidem [pote-

vinitate Christi per eius humanitatem stas excellentiae'] consistit in quat-

in ipsa sacramenta derivetur. . . • iuor: prima quidem in hoc quod

Manifcstum est autem ex his quae meritum et virtus passionis eius

supra dicta sunt {qu. 48, 49), quod operatur in sacramentis . . .; ideo

Christus liberavit nos a peccatis secundo ad potestatem excellentiae,

nostris praecipue per passionem, non quam Christus habet in sacramentis,

solum sufRcienter et meritorie, sed pertinet quod in eius nomine sa-

etiam satisfactorie. Similiter etiam cramenta sanctificentur. Et quia ex

per suam passionem initiavit ritum eius institutione sacramenta virtu-

christianae religionis. . . . Unde tem obtinent, inde est quod tertio

nianifestum est quod sacramenta ec- ad excellentiam potcstatis Christi

clesiae specialiter habent virtutem ex pertinet quod ipse, qui dedit virtu-

passione Christi, cuius virtus quo- tem sacramentis, potuit instituere

DIVINE INSTITUTION

lOI

Thesis II: The Sacraments of the Christian dis-
pensation have been immediately and personally in-
stituted by Christ.

This proposition may be technically qualified as
propositio certa.

Proof. After showing that the Sacraments
have Christ for their author, we have now to
demonstrate that He instituted them immediately
and personally, and not through the instrumen-
tality of His Apostles or the Church.

Before the Tridentine Council some theologians held
that Christ personally instituted most of the Sacraments,
but not all. Hugh of St. Victor, Peter Lombard, and St.
Bonaventure, for instance, thought that Confirmation and
Extreme Unction were instituted by the Apostles under
the inspiration of the Holy Ghost.^" Alexander of Hales
even went so far as to maintain that Confirmation cannot
be traced farther back than the Council of Meaux, A. D.
845. This was an egregious historical blunder, as
the Council of Meaux passed only disciplinary regula-
tions.^^

Since the Council of Trent Catholic theologians are so
firmly convinced of the immediate institution of the Sac-

sacramenta. Et quia causa non de-
pendet ab effcctu, sed potius e con-
trario, idea quarto ad excellentiam
potestatis pertinct quod ipse potuit
effectum sacrament orum sine ex-
teriori sacramento conferre." These
four reasons in principle establish
the institution of all the Sacraments
by Christ. Cfr. De Augustinis, De
Re Sacramentaria, Vol. I, 2nd ed.,
pp. 12$ sqq.; Gihr, Die hi. Sakra-
tnente. Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 124 sq.

10 Cfr. St. Bonaventure, Com-
ment, in Sent., IV, dist. 23, art. i,
qu. 2: " Et idco probabilius alii
dicunt et Magister videtur hoc
sentire, imo aperte dicit, quod Spi-
ritus Sanctus hoc sacramentum [ex-
tremae uncfionis'\ per Apostolos
inslifuit, sicut supra dictum est de
sacramento confirmationis."

11 See Labbe, Concil,, t. VII, p.
1833-

102 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

raments by Christ that some of them ^- teach it as a
dogma, while all without exception regard it as doctrina
certa}^

Though the Tridentine Council, out of regard for the
authority of such eminent theologians as St. Bonaventure,
purposely refrained from defining the immediate institu-
tion of the Sacraments by Jesus Christ as an article of
faith, its teaching on the subject is quite unmistakable
in its implications.

(i) Whenever a personal name is connected with the
institution of a rite, the bearer of that name must mani-
festly have personally instituted the rite. In the Trident-
ine definition " Jesus " and " Christ " are thus connected
with the institution of the Sacraments {v. supra, Thesis
I), Moreover, the Council itself draws a sharp distinc-
tion between the ceremonies ordained by the Church ^*
and the Sacraments instituted by Christ.^^

(2) Wherever it speaks of the institution of those
Sacraments that were undoubtedly instituted by our Di-
vine Saviour in person, the Council employs precisely the
same terms as in the canon just referred to ; '^^ conse-
quently, that canon must be understood as inculcating the
immediate institution of all the Sacraments by Christ.

(3) Had the Church received from her Divine Founder
the power to institute Sacraments, she would also have
the power of changing the substance of any Sacrament,

12 E. g., Bellarmine, Vasquez,
Gonet, against Suarez, Billuart,
Tournely, et al.

13 Cfr. Suarez, De Sacramentis,
disp. 12, § i: " Christus Dominus
immediate ac per se ipsum instituit
omnia sacramenia Novae Legis.
Conclusio est omnino certa ex de-
finitione Concilii Tridentini (Sess.
VII, can. 1): 'Si quis dixerit, sa-

cramenia Novae Legis non fuisse
omnia a lesu Christo Domino nostra
instituta, anathema sit.' "

14 Sess. VII, can. 13.

15 Sess. VII, can. i.

16 Cfr, Cone. Trid.. Sess. XIV
cap. i; Sess. XXII, can. 2; Sess.
XXIII, cap. i; Sess. XXIU
prooem: "Ipse Christus venerabi
Hum sacramentorum institiitor . ,

DIVINE INSTITUTION 103

both with regard to matter and form. But this is ex-
pressly denied by the Council.^^

(4) The Council teaches in regard to Extreme Unc-
tion, the Sacrament mainly in dispute, that it is " a Sacra-
ment instituted by Christ our Lord and promulgated by
the blessed Apostle James," ^* — a phrase which positively
excludes the theory that this Sacrament may have been
instituted by the Apostles or the Church.

In the light of these considerations the reader will be
able to form his own opinion of the .contention of Loisy,^''
condemned in the so-called " Syllabus of Pius X," that
Christ did not institute a single one of the traditional
Sacraments, but that they were all introduced in course of
time by the Church.-"^

a) Holy Writ furnishes direct evidence that
at least two of the Sacraments were insti-
tuted immediately by Christ, namely, Baptism
(Matth. XXVIII, 19, John III, 5) and the Holy
Eucharist (Matth. XXVI, 26 sqq., et passim).
Besides these there is good scriptural reason to
suppose that our Saviour personally instituted
Penance (John XX, 2;^) and Holy Orders (Luke
XXII, 19).

While we have no direct evidence concerning the other
three Sacraments, we are justified in assuming that they
derive their existence from the same divine origin.

17 Sess. XXI, cap. 2: " Praeterea 18 Sess. XIV, can. i: " Extre-

declarat, hanc potestatem perpctuo mam unctioncm esse . . • sacramen-

in Ecclesia fuissc, ut in sacramen- turn a Christo Domino nostro in-

torum dispensationc, salvd, illorum stitutum et a B. lacobo Apostolo

substantid, ea statucrct vel mutaret, promulgatum."

quae suscipicntium utililati sen 10 Autour d'un Petit Livrc, pp.

ipsorum sacramcntorum I'cncralioni 220 sqq., Paris 1903.

pro rerum, temporum et locorum 20 Denzingcr-Bannwart, Enchiri'

varietale magis expcdire iudicaret." dion, n. 2039 sqq.

104 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Like Baptism, the Eucharist, Penance, and Holy Orders,
— Confirmation, Extreme Unction, and Matrimony are
veritable pillars of the Catholic religion. All three
are plainly mentioned in Holy Scripture -^ and there-
fore cannot possibly have been instituted in post-
Apostolic times. That they are not of Apostolic origin
may safely be inferred from the fact that the Apostles
never appear as the authors but invariably as the adminis-
trators of the Sacraments. Cfr. i Cor. IV, i : " Let a man
so account of us as of the ministers of Christ and the dis-
pensers of the mysteries of God." i Cor. Ill, 4 sq. :
" What then is Apollo ? and what is Paul ? The min-
isters of him whom you have believed." ^^

b) The Fathers know of no distinction be-
tween mediate and immediate institution in re-
spect of the Sacraments.

Pseudo- Ambrose asks : " Who is the author of the Sac-
raments if not the Lord Jesus? These Sacraments have
come from heaven." -^ Special importance attaches, as
Vasquez points out,^* to the testimony of St. Augustine,
who says : " In the first place, therefore, I want you to
hold . . . that the Lord Jesus Christ . . . subjected us
to a light yoke and an easy burden. Hence He bound the
society of the new people with Sacraments very few in
number, easy of observance, eminent in signification, as,
for instance. Baptism consecrated by the name of the

21 Confirmation, Acts VIII, 17, Paulus? Ministri (diOLKOPOt) eius,
XIX, 6; Extreme Unction, Jas. V, cui credidistis."

14 sqq. ; Matrimony, Eph. V, 25 sqq. 23 D^ Sacram., IV, 4, 13: " Sa-

22 I Cor. IV, i: "Sic nos existi- cramentoruni auctor quis est nisi
met homo ut ministros Christi et Dominus Jesus? De caelo ista sa-
dispensatores (olnovofiovs) my- cramenta venerunt."

steriornm Dei." — i Cor. Ill, 4 sq.: 24 Comment, in S. Th., Ill, disp,

" Quid igitur est Apollo? quid vero 135, c. i, n. 9.

DIVINE INSTITUTION 105

Trinity, the communication of His own body and blood,
and whatever else is commended in the canonical Scrip-
tures." -^ Baptism and the Holy Eucharist are here as-
cribed immediately to Christ, together with the other Sac-
raments commended in the canonical Scripturbs, i. e. all
seven as we know them. Where he speaks of the deeds
of our Lord on earth, Augustine says : " In the time of
servitude, under the Old Law, the people, bound by
fear, were burdened with many sacraments. This was
useful for them, that they might desire the grace of God
which the prophets had predicted. When it came, the
wisdom of God, through the assumption of the man
by whom we were called to liberty, instituted a few highly
useful Sacraments, which were to bind together the society
of the Christian people, that is, of the multitude enjoy-
ing freedom under the one God." ^"^ Augustine is well
aware of the fact that Christ might have granted the
faculty of instituting Sacraments to His Apostles, yet
he says: " [Christ] did not wish this, in order that the
hope of the baptized be in Him by whom they acknowl-
edge their Baptism. . . . Therefore, lest there be said to
be as many baptisms as [there are] ministers who bap-
tize, having received the power to do so from the Lord,
the Lord kept for Himself the power of baptizing, giving

25 St. Augustine, Ep. 54 ad la- 2G De Vera Religionc, c. 17, n. 33:

nuar., c. i: " Pri>no itaque tcnere " Populus timore constrictus tem-

te volo, . . . Dominum nostrum pore servitulis in Vetere Lege multis

lesum Chrisluin . . . levi iugo suo sacramentis onerabatur. Hoc enim

nos subdidissc ct sarcinae Icvi. talihus utile erat ad desidcrandam

Unde sacramentis numcro paucissi- gratiam Dei, quae per prophelas

mis, observationc facillimis, signifi- vcntura canebatur. Quae ubi venit,

catione praestantissiniis societatem ab ipsa Dei sapientia homine as-

novi populi colligavit, sicuti est bap- sumpto, a quo in libertatcm vocati

tismus Trinitatis nomine consecratus, sumus, pauca sacramcnta satuberrima

commutiicatio corporis et sanguinis constitula stint, quae societatem

ipsius et si quid aliud in Scripturis christiani populi, hoc est sub uno

canonicis commendatur." Deo liberae multitudinis continC'

rent."

io6 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

His servants [merely] the ministry." ^^ The latter part
of this passage indicates the reason why Christ instituted
the Sacraments immediately and personally. The idea
is more fully developed by St. Thomas.^®

c) Theologians grant the abstract possibility of a me-
diate institution of the Sacraments by the Apostles or by
the Church, but they grant it only conditionally, that is in
so far as it does not involve a denial of the doctrine set
forth in our first thesis.-'' Though some ^" are unwilling
to admit that Christ could have imparted His power to
mere men, the common opinion is that, had He so willed.
He could have empowered the Apostles and the Church to
institute Sacraments at His behest. Of course, the dis-
tinction between the divine potestas auctoritatis and the
theandric potestas excellentiae must always be kept in
mind. The former is incommunicable, while the latter
may, to a certain limited extent, be bestowed upon crea-
tures.^^

27 Tract, in loa., V, n. 7: "Hoc quae compctit ei secundum quod
noluit ideo, ttt in illo spes esset hap- homo, et talent potestateni potuit
tizatorum, a quo se baptisatos agno- ministris communicare, dando scil.
scerent. . . . Ergo ne tot baptisma- eis tantam gratiae plenitudinem, ut
ta dicerentur, quot essent sen'i eorum meritum operaretur ad sa-
qui baptizarent accepta potcstate cr anient or um effcctus, ut ad invoca-
a Domino, sibi tenuit Dominus tionem nominum ipsorutn sanctifica-
bapticandi potestaiem, servis mini- rentur sacramenta, et ut ipsi possent
sterium dedit." sacramenta institucre et sine ritu

28 Sunima Theol., 3a, qu. 64, art. sacramentorum cffectum sacramen-
4. See also Suarez, De Sacrani., torum conferre solo imperio. Potest
disp. 12, sect. I. enim instriimcntuni coniunctuni [i.

29 V. supra, p. 97. e. humanitas Christi], quando fuerit

30 E. g., Durandus, Scotus, and fortius, tanto magis virtutem suam
Vasquez. instrumento separata [i. e. ministro^

31 Cfr. St. Thomas, Sunima Theol., tribuere, sicut manus baculo." To
3a, qu. 64, art. 4: " Christus in the objection that such a (hypo-
sacramentis habuit duplicem pate- thetic) plenipotentiary, by the posses-
statem: unam auctoritatis, quae com- sion of such incredible privileges,
petit ei secundum quod Deus, et talis would eo ipso be the caput gratiae
potestas nulli creatiirae potuit com- of humanity, St. Thomas replies with
municari, sicut nee divina essentia. a distinction: "Si tamen iChristusJ
Aliam potestateni habuit excellentiae, communicasset, ipse esset caput

DIVINE INSTITUTION 107

Thesis III : Christ determined the matter and form
of each Sacrament so that they are immutable for all
time.

This proposition embodies a sententia commu-
nis.

Proof. The matter and form of a Sacrament
may be determined individually, specifically, or
generically.

They are determined individually if everything is mi-
nutely regulated in detail, as, for instance, the exact
method of pouring out the water and the precise words to
be pronounced by the minister in Baptism. The history
and practice of the Greek Church furnish ample evi-
dence that our Lord did not thus determine the matter and
form of the Sacraments in individuo.

By specific determination we understand a designa-
tion of matter and form in infima specie. Theologians
are agreed that Christ specifically determined the matter
and form of some of the Sacraments {e. g., Baptism
and the Eucharist), but not of all (especially Confirma-
tion and Holy Orders ).^-

Generic determination is a designation of matter and
form only quoad genus. Some theologians ^^ assert that
Christ determined the rite of ordination in such a general
way, leaving the choice of a specific sign to His Church.
This would account for the dififerences existing in the
Eastern and the Western Churches. We admit that this
theory enables us to explain more satisfactorily, from the

principalitcr, alii vero secundaria." point we must refer the student

(L. c, ad 2). Cfr. De Lugo, De to the separate treatises on the

Sacram., disp. 7, sect. 1-2; Franze- Sacraments.

lin, Dc Sacram. in Ccucre, thes. 14. 33 E. g., De Lugo {De Sacram.,

32 for further details on this disp. 2, sect. 5).

io8 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

historic point of view, the differences in the administra-
tion of other Sacraments that have developed in the
course of centuries (e. g., Confirmation and Penance).
According to the unanimous teaching of theologians, the
term " matter and form " comprises all those ele-
ments, and those elements only, which Christ Himself
instituted either in specie, or at least in genere, and over
these the Church has no power.

Nevertheless, solid arguments can be adduced
in support of the proposition that Christ Himself
so determined both the matter and the form of
all the Sacraments, not only in genere, but like-
wise in specie, that the Church has never made
any essential change in regard thereto, and could
not make such a change if she would.

a) One of these arguments may be formulated as fol-
lows : Christ immediately and personally instituted all the
Sacraments.^* Now every Sacrament consists essentially
of matter and form.^^ Consequently, He who instituted
the Sacraments must have determined their matter and
form. If the Apostles or the Church had determined
the matter or the form of any Sacrament, they would
have mediately instituted that Sacrament. And if it
were true, as some theologians assert, that for the Sacra-
ment of Holy Orders the Church undertook the speci-
fication of matter and form and carried it out differ-
ently in the East and in the West, it would have to
be admitted that she has changed the Sacrament essen-
tially. For whoever changes the matter and form of a
Sacrament, changes the Sacrament itself. Moreover, if
the Church had at any time in the past possessed the power

34 V. Thesis II, supra. 35 V. supra, Ch. II, Sect. i.

DIVINE INSTITUTION 109

to determine the matter and form of a Sacrament, she
would have the same power to-day, in accordance with
Toletus' principle : " Cuius est facere, est etiam mu-
tare." ^^ But the Church herself expressly denies that
she has any such power,^'^ Consequently, the matter
and form of all the Sacraments — including Confirma-
tion, Holy Orders, and Matrimony — have been specific-
ally determined by Christ Himself.

Tradition affords no evidence that the Church ever in-
troduced any particular sign as the matter and form of a
Sacrament, or that she substituted any new sign for one
already in use. Pope Benedict XIV, who firmly held
the theory just expounded, boldly challenged his oppo-
nents to produce any evidence in support of their claim.
" Let them tell us," he says, " where, when, by what coun-
cil or pope such a change was made," and adds : " The
contrary seems to be evident from the Tridentine Coun-
cil,^^ which declares that Christ gave His Church the
power to ordain or change whatsoever she may judge ex-
pedient in the dispensation of the Sacraments, their sub-
stance remaining untouched ; a change of matter and
form would touch, not the rite and dispensation, but the
substance." ^^ Well-nigh the only reason why some theo-
logians incline to the opposite opinion, is the difference
existing between the rite of ordination in the Eastern
and the Western Church. In the Orient, the matter of
this Sacrament is the imposition of hands, in the Occident,

86 Toletus, Comment, in S. TheoL, evinci ex Tridcntino, ubi dcclarat,
III, c|u. 64, art. 2. o Christo rclictam esse Ecclcsiac po-
37 V. supra., p. 103. testatem mutaudi quae sacramcn-
88 Sess. XXI, cap. 2. torum dispensationem respiciunt,
30 Benedict XIV, De Synodo salva illorum substantia; viutatio
Dioecesana, VIII, 10, 10: " Dicant vera matcriae ct forinae non ad
enim, ubi, quando, in quo concilio, a ritinn ct dispensationem, sed ad sub-
quo pontifice facta sit ciusmodi mu- stantiam pertinet,"
tatio," " Jmo oppositum videtur

no THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

the traditio instrumentorum. This difference, however,
as we shall show in our treatise on Holy Orders, does not
affect the essence of the Sacrament.^°

b) The determination of matter and form is not equally
specific in the different Sacraments. In the case of Bap-
tism, for instance, the " ablution," which represents the
matter, both proximate and remote, of the Sacrament, may
be carried out in three different ways — by immersion, by
effusion, or by aspersion, while the words constituting the
form may be pronounced either in Latin or in Greek or
in the vernacular, and may be indicative or deprecatory.
The underlying principle may be briefly stated as follows :
The matter of a Sacrament remains within the sphere of
its determined species as long as it retains, in the popular
estimation, its peculiar properties, while the form remains
specifically unchanged as long as the logical and theological
sense of the formula is preserved intact. Alterations, ad-
ditions or omissions which do not run counter to this prin-
ciple are to be regarded as merely accidental changes.
Certain doubtful instances will be treated later in con-
nection with the several Sacraments. It should be
noted, however, that the validity of a sacramental form
may also depend on the intention of the minister, who has
it in his power, either through mere ignorance or pur-
posely, to corrupt the form. If a mistake is made through
ignorance, the Sacrament is valid so long as the wrongly
pronounced formula may be morally held to retain the ob-
jective sense which Christ wished to connect with it. If
the corruption is intentional, the form retains its specific
integrity only on condition that its objective sense is not

40 For a more detailed treatment Franzelin, De Sacram. in Gen., thes.
consult De Augustinis, Dc Re Sa- 5; G. M. Van Rossum, Dc Essentia
cram.. Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 168 sqq.; Sacramenti Ordinis, Rome 1914.

SACRAMENTALS in

essentially altered or the intention to do what the Church
wishes to do is not positively excluded. Should the min-
ister of a Sacrament be led by a desire for novelty pur-
posely to render the meaning of a prescribed form am-
biguous, or heretically to exclude the right intention, it is
evident that he desires to employ another form than that
instituted by Christ, and the Sacrament consequently be-
comes invalid.

Thesis IV : Though the Church has no right to in-
stitute Sacraments, she possesses the power to insti-
tute sacramentals.

This proposition may be qualified as " certa."

Proof. In the three preceding theses we have ex-
plained what the Church cannot do in regard to the
Sacraments. The present one defines what she can
do.

There are two kinds of sacramentals: (i) such as ac-
company the administration of the Sacraments (e. g.
the exorcisms pronounced in Baptism, the use of salt, the
anointing of the forehead), and (2) such as may be used
independently of the Sacraments and have a quasi mat-
ter and form of their own (e. g. the different ecclesias-
tical blessings). The former are called sacramental cere-
monies, the latter sacramentals in the strict sense of the
term.

I. That the Church has power to institute sacramental
ceremonies or rites, is clear from the following declara-
tion of the Tridentine Council : " If anyone saith that
the received and approved rites of the Catholic Church,
wont to be used in the solemn administration of the Sac-
raments, may be contemned, or without sin be omitted at
pleasure by the ministers, or be changed by every pastor

112 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

of the churches into other new ones, let him be anath-
ema." *^

a) In proof of this dogma the Holy Synod adduces the
example of St. Paul, who concludes his remarks on the
Eucharist with these words : " And the rest I will set
in order, when I come." *^ There is abundant Patristic
evidence for the antiquity of the sacramental ceremonies
employed by the Church. Most of those now in use can
be traced far beyond the ninth century, as a glance at the
Sacramentary of Gregory the Great and the writings of
Rhabanus Maurus, Alcuin, and Isidore shows. In the
early days of Christianity different ceremonies were in
vogue, as may be gathered from the works of Tertullian.*^

The theological argument for our thesis rests mainly
on the fact that the Church possesses legislative power
to ordain whatever she judges fit to beautify her services
and promote the salvation of souls. The sacramental cer-
emonies serve both these purposes by giving visible ex-
pression to the ideas that underlie the sacred mysteries
of religion, and by stimulating, nourishing, and augment-
ing the devotion of the faithful.**

b) A word regarding the use of the Latin language in
the administration of the Sacraments. In the first place,
no solid argument can be alleged in favor of the vernacu-
lar. Those who are ignorant of Latin lose nothing of the
sacramental effect, since the Sacraments produce their

41 Sess. VII, can. 13: "Si quis 42 i Cor. XI, 34: "Cetera, quum

dixerit, receptos et approbates Ec- venero, disponam."

clesiae catholicae ritiis in solemni 43 The argument from tradition is

sacrament oruin adniinistratione ad- copiously developed by Suarez, De

hiberi consuetos aut contemni ant Sacram., disp. 15, sect. 3, n. 3.

sine peccato a ministris pro libito 44 Bellarmine says they are as

omitti aut in novos alios per quern- necessary to religion as salt is to

cunque ecclesiarttm pastorem mutari meat. (.De Sacram., V, 31). Cfr.

posse, anathema sit." (Denzinger- Cone. Trident., Sess. XXII, cap. 5

Bannwart, n. 856). (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 943);

Catech. Rom., P. II, cap. i, n. 18.

SACRAMENTALS 113

effects ex opere operato, and the meaning of the ac-
companying words can be easily explained to the faithful.
On the other hand, the substitution of a living tongue for
Latin would entail very serious inconveniences. Unity of
worship is so intimately bound up with unity of language
that the adoption of different rituals and liturgies in
different vernaculars would, externally at least, split up
the Church into an equal number of national churches.
Moreover, if the liturgical books were composed in a
living tongue, it would be necessary to rewrite them from
time to time, and there would naturally be danger lest
the doctrine itself should become more and more obscured
to the detriment of explicit and well-determined faith.
The use of a dead language obviates all these difficul-
ties. There is another point. If Latin were not the
language of the Qiurch, the clergy would be exposed
to the danger of neglecting this important tongue, which
is the key to the Vulgate and the writings of the Western
Fathers, and thus more easily become a prey to ignorance
and intellectual lethargy, which could not but result in
injury to the Church and religion.

2. Sacramentals in the strict sense are rites resembling
those of the sacraments but independent of them, instituted
by the Church for the supernatural advantage of the
faithful.

a) The term itself seems to have been coined by
Alexander of Hales.*^ Hugh of St. Victor speaks of the
sacramentals as sacramenta minora in contradistinction
to the sacramenta maiora s. principalia. St. Thomas re-
fers to them as sacra and again as sacramentalia.

Sacramentals differ from Sacraments in three essen-
tial respects :

4C Summa Theol., P. 4, qu. 23, n. 5.

114 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

( 1 ) Unlike the Sacraments, the sacramentals were not
immediately instituted by our Lord, but partly by His
Apostles (e. g. the sign of the cross) and partly by the
Church {e. g. the blessing of the baptismal font).

(2) They do not communicate sanctifying grace, but
work other inferior though salutary effects.

(3) They produce these effects not ex opere operato,
but ex opere operantis.

They resemble the Sacraments in this that they ordina-
rily consist of matter and form and produce a spiritual
effect in the recipient.

The blessings and exorcisms of the Church have
their prototype in Christ.'*'' The ceremony of washing the
feet was directly instituted by him, while the other sacra-
mentals have their justification in the legislative power
of the Church. Harnack shows a woful lack of under-
standing when he writes : " We must study the theory
and practice of the benedictions and sacramentals in
connection with indulgences, in order to see how far the
Catholic Church has progressed towards Paganism. The
dogmatic teaching in regard to the benedictio constitutiva
and the consecratio, as distinguished from the benedictio
invocativa, is a veritable insult not only to the Christian
but to every spiritual religion. ... As the Church by
the adoption of indulgences, truly, i. e. in praxi, created
another Sacrament of Penance, so in the sacramentals she
created new Sacraments more convenient than the old, be-
cause entirely under her control. In both respects she has
legitimized Rabbinism and the theory and practice of the
Pharisees and Talmudists." *^ This is absolutely false. If
the sacramentals were mere remnants of Paganism, Phari-

46 Cfr. Matth. X, 8, XIV, 19, 47 Dogmengeschichte, Vol, III,

XIX, 15; Mark IX, 37, XVI, 17; 3rd ed., pp. 604 sq.
Luke X, 17.

SACRAMENTALS 115

seeism, and Talmudism, the same would be true of the
Sacraments, whereas their power rests on the divinity of
Christ in exactly the same way as that of the sacramentals
rests on the divinity of the Church. True, Harnack denies
both these premises ; but as a historian he ought in fair-
ness to judge the sacramentals not from the rational-
istic but from the Catholic point of view. Surely it can-
not be affirmed historically that Christ employed a Pagan
or Talmudic rite when He exorcised demons or when He
blessed bread and wine before the consecration. Why,
then, accuse the Church of Paganism when, following the
example of her Divine Founder, she blesses persons and
objects, calls down a benediction upon the fields, and pro-
nounces exorcisms against evil spirits? That indulgences
take the place of the Sacrament of Penance, and that the
sacramentals have supplanted the original Sacraments, is
an utterly gratuitous assertion. An indulgence is merely
a remission of temporal punishment, whereas in the Sac-
rament of Penance sins are forgiven. The sacramentals
derive their efficacy from the disposition of the recipient,
and consequently by no means render superfluous the
Sacraments, which produce their effects ex opere operato.
That the spiritual effects of both Sacraments and sacra-
mentals depend on external signs and symbols, far from
involving an insult to the Christian religion, responds to
a normal postulate of human nature, which is a com-
pound of spirit and matter, in which the spiritual must
be attained by means of the senses. The use of the
sacramentals remains optional, while to receive certain
Sacraments is of strict obligation. The only thing that
is forbidden in connection with the sacramentals is con-
tempt and superstitious use. Educated Catholics may
not relish all the sacramentals, but they know that the
Church, as a kindly mother, supplies all reasonable needs

ii6 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

and demands of her children, even those of the weak
and simple. In extending her blessings to every province
of nature, she constantly reminds us that the earth is
still groaning under the curse of sin and that man's true
home is not here below. It is a truly magnificent con-
ception that underlies the Catholic doctrine of the sacra-
mentals.**

b) As regards the classification of the sacramentals,
an attempt has been made to reduce them to six, em-
bodied in the ancient hexameter :

" Orans, tinctiis, edens, confessus, dans, henedicens."
Aside from the fact that public prayer {orans), the gen^-
eral avowal of faults made in the recitation of the Con-
fiteor {confessus), and almsgiving {dans) are not sacra-
mentals in the true sense of the term, it is to be remarked
that the actual number of sacramentals is by no means
limited to the other three rites enumerated above, viz.:
the use of holy water {tinctus), the eating of blessed
food {edcns), and papal, episcopal, and sacerdotal bless-
ings {henedicens).

Equally inadequate is the sevenfold division of the
sacramentals indicated in the line:
" Crux, aqua, nomen, edens, ungens, iurans, henedicens/'

To pronounce the Holy Name of Jesus {nomen) is
merely an ejaculatory prayer, while the sign of the cross
{crux), the use of holy water {aqua), the eating of
blessed food {edens), the use of holy oil {ungens), exor-
cisms {iurans), and ecclesiastical benedictions {henedi-
cens), though true sacramentals, by no means exhaust
their number.

48 Cfr. Oswald, Die dogmatische nien, 23rd ed., Mainz 1898; A. A.

Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, Lambing, The Sacramentals of the

Vol. I, sth ed., pp. IS sqq., Munster Holy Catholic Church, New York

1894; Gr. Rippel, Die Schonheit der 1892.
kath. Kirche in ihren hi. Zeremo-

SACRAMENTALS 117

A more comprehensive division is that made by St.
Thomas, to which Harnack adverts in the passage quoted
above. The AngeUc Doctor distinguishes consecrations
(consecratio s. benedictio constitutiva) and benedictions
(benedictio invocativa). To this has been added as a
third species, exorcism {adiuratio daemonum). A con-
secration is a rite by which the Church dedicates a
person {e. g. an abbot) or an object {e. g. an ahar)
to the service of God. A benediction is an ecclesiastical
rite by virtue of which some benefit, either spiritual
or corporal, is applied to a designated person. The ap-
plication may be either immediate (as in the case of the
papal blessing) or mediate (as in the use of a blessed
object, such as holy water). The term sacramentals is
by a well-known figure of speech applied to conse-
crated or blessed objects, though strictly speaking it
belongs only to the act of consecration or benediction,
or to the use of consecrated or blessed objects. The ex-
orcisms are partly integral constituents of sacramental
ceremonies, and partly direct adjurations of the devil,
or of natural objects with a view to withdraw them
from the curse of sin and the power of Satan.*^

c) With regard to the efficacy of the sacramentals
we must never lose sight of the fundamental principle
that they neither obliterate mortal sin nor infuse sanc-
tifying grace. If they were capable of working these
effects, there would be no difference between them and
the Sacraments. Theologians argue as to whether the
sacramentals may confer other graces ex opere operato
(as, for example, the forgiveness of venial sins, the re-
mission of temporal punishments) and not merely through
the intercession of the Church or the action of the one

40Cfr. Rom. VIII, 20 sq.; 1 Cor. V, 5; Acts XXVI, 18.

Ii8 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

who uses them. Some writers (e. g. Dominicus Soto and
Bellarmine) do not hesitate to attribute such efficacy to
the sacramentals, whereas the majority reject the assump-
tion, and justly so, for three reasons: first, because the
Church is not empowered to institute efficacious signs of
grace; second, because the sacramentals do not produce
their effects infallibly ; and third, because the Church in
her rites makes use, not of affinnative, but of deprecatory
expressions, which shows that she looks to the divine
mercy for the effect. Hence the sacramentals derive
their efficacy entirely ex opere operantis.^^ This efficacy
is nevertheless very special in that it owes its power
not to the opus operans (i. e. the pious acts) of the faith-
ful alone, but also to the optts operans (i. e. the inter-
cession) of the Church. If this were not so, it might
make no difference whether a Catholic would sprinkle
himself with holy water or with ordinary water,
because in both cases his piety and devotion might
be the same, and there would be no other source of
efficacy. The purely deprecative character of the sac-
ramentals is also revealed by the fact that any priest,
regardless of his personal worthiness, can validly bless
and consecrate; it is the Church that blesses and con-
secrates through him. This explains the theory of
some theologians that the operation of the sacramentals
lies midway between the opus opcratiim and the opus
operans, in regard to which theory it may be well to re-
mark that the opus operatuni is simply the optts operans
of the Church. These considerations in this case afford a
standard for measuring the mode and extent of the effects
wrought by the sacramentals. Aside from the personal
devotion of the user there can be no effects other than

50 Cfr, St. Thomas, Suinma TheoL, 3a, qu. 83, art. 3, ad 3.

SACRAMENTALS 119

those for which the Church prays and which are deducible
from her official formularies.

d) The fruits or effects of the sacramentals may be
similarly divided into three categories. Consecration
(benedictio constitutiva) results in the effective with-
drawal from profane use of the person or thing upon
which it is bestowed, and its dedication to the purpose
of divine worship (<?. g., the tonsure, minor orders, the
blessing of oil, the dedication of a church, an altar, a
vestment). Benediction {benedictio invocativa) has four
distinct effects : forgiveness of venial sins, remission of
temporal punishments, bestowal of actual graces and of
material benefits. The forgiveness of sins resulting from
the use of sacramentals is ascribed by St. Thomas to an
implied act of contrition.^^ The remission of temporal
punishments due to sin requires something more, viz.: an
ardent love of God elicited during the use of the sacra-
mentals.°- There is only one exception to this rule, viz.:
when indulgences are attached to the use of blessed objects
{e. g. rosaries, medals), because an indulgence is a re-
mission of temporal punishments by virtue of the power of
the keys entrusted by Christ to His Church. The bestowal
of actual graces in connection with sacramentals depends
partly on the subjective devotion and receptivity of the
faithful, partly on the effective intercession of the Church.
Lastly, the sacramentals may also bring down upon their
users material benefits (blessing of bread, dwellings, fields,
etc.), provided, of course, that the benefits asked for by the

51 Siimma ThcoL, 3a, qu. 87, art. quia sic qui essct omnino imtnunis a
3, ad 1: ". . . inqna>itum inclinant pcccato mortali, aspersus aqua
Isacramentalia'i animam ad motum bencdicta statim evolaret \_ad
poenitentiae, qui est detestatio pec- caelum'] ; sed reatus pocnae remit-
calorum vel implicite vel explicite." titur per pracdicta secundum motum

52 St. Tliomas, /. c, ad 3: " Non fervoris in Dcum, qui per pracdicta
autem per quodlibet pracdictorum excitatur quandoque magis, quan-
semper tollitur totus reatus poenac, doque autem minus."

120 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Church do not conflict with the divine economy of grace
or the salvation of souls. The effect of exorcisms {ad-
iuratio daemoniim) consists solely in a moral power en-
abling man to overcome the attacks and temptations of the
devil and to weaken or frustrate his assaults.

Readings : — *St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, qu. 64, art.
1-4. — Bellarmine, De Sacramentis, I, 23. — *De Lugo, De Sacra-
mentis, disp. 7, sect. 1-2. — Franzelin, De Sacramentis in Genere,
thes. 14, Rome 1888. — De Augustinis, De Re Sacramentaria, t. I,
2nd ed., pp. 125 sqq., Rome 1889. — W. Humphrey, SJ., The One
Mediator, or Sacrifice and Sacraments, London 1890. — P. Schanz,
Die Lehre von den Sakramcnten dcr katli. Kirche, § 8, Freiburg
1893. — Tepe, Instit. Theologicae, Vol. IV, pp. 19 sqq., Paris i8g6.

On the sacramentals cfr. Probst, Kirchliche Benediktionen und
ihre V erwaltung , Tiibingen 1857. — Idem, Sakramente und Sakra-
mentalicn in den drei ersten christlichen Jahrhunderten, Tubingen
1872. — G. M. Schuler, Die kirchlichen Sakramentalien, Bamberg
1867. — *P. Schanz, Die Wirksamkeit der Sakramentalien, in the
Theol. Quartalschrift, Tubingen 1886, pp. 548 sqq. — *Fr. Schmid,
Die Sakramentalien der kath. Kirche in Hirer Eigenart beleuchtet,
Brixen 1896. — *Arendt, SJ., De Sacramentalibus Disquisitio
Scholastico-Dogmatica, 2nd ed., Rome 1900. — Heinrich-Gutberlet,
Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IX, § 481, Mainz 1901. — Ad. Franz,
Die kirchlichen Benediktionen im Mittelalter, 2 vols., Freiburg
1909. — • A. A. Lambing, The Sacramentals of the Holy Catholic
Church, New York 1892. — H. Leclercq, O.S.B., art. "Sacramen-
tals," in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII.

CHAPTER III

THE EFFICACY OF THE SACRAMENTS AND THEIR
MANNER OF OPERATION

We have now to explain the efficacy of the
Sacraments and the manner in which they pro-
duce their effects.

As we have seen, the Sacraments produce in-
ternal grace/ The question now arises whether
they cause this effect ex opere operato, i. e. in-
dependently of the merits of minister and recipi-
ent, and if so, whether they are to be regarded as
the physical or as the moral causes of the grace
they confer.

The first question involves an article of faith,
the second merely a free opinion, on which theo-
logians may and do differ.

1 V. Ch. II, Sect. 2, supra.

121

SECTION I

THE EFFICACY OF THE SACRAMENTS EX OPERE

OPERATO

I. The Protestant Sacramental System
AND the Definition of the Council of Trent.
— The Protestant Reformers regarded the Sac-
raments merely as "exhortations designed to ex-
cite faith" (Luther) or as "tokens of the truth-
fulness of the divine promises" (Calvin) or as
"mere signs of Christian profession by which the
faithful testify that they belong to the Church
of Jesus Christ" (Zwingli and the Socinians).
The Council of Trent condemned these erroneous
opinions and solemnly defined that the Sacra-
ments are means of grace, which produce the
grace they "contain" ex opere operato in all those
who do not place an obstacle.

a) The sacramental system of the Reformers flowed
quite logically from their false idea of justification. If
justification really consisted in a merely extrinsic appli-
cation of the merits of Jesus Christ, which cover the sin-
ner and hide his wickedness from the sight of God, and
if faith were the only thing whereby man is justified,^

2 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actualand Habitual, pp. 285 sqq., St. Louis
191S.

122

EFFICACY 123

it would be perfectly proper to regard the Sacraments
in the sense of Luther, or as a kind of acted sermons
calculated to sustain the faith {signa paraenetica or con-
cionatoria) . Quite consistently, therefore, did the Augs-
burg Confession " condemn those who hold that the Sac-
raments work justification ex opere operato." ^

Calvin, in keeping with his theory of " absolute
predestination," declared that " the Sacraments are given
to us by God as bearers of good tidings are sent by men,"
and that they merely announce and declare the gifts we
owe to the liberality of God, or at most are pledges calcu-
lated to make us sure of these gifts."*

Zwingli was even more radical. He taught that the
Sacraments are merely discriminating labels of Christian
profession, separating the followers of Christ from un-
believers. " It would be difficult to go any further,"
rightly observes Pourrat, " and to lower still more the
value of the Sacraments of the New Law." ^ Zwingli's
conception of the Sacraments was later adopted by the
Socinians.^

b) Against these heretical errors the Council of Trent
insisted on the objective efficacy of the Sacraments, de-
claring that the subjective activity of the recipient is
merely dispositive in character, and defining the causality
of the Sacraments as a true efficacia ex opere operato.

3 Art. 13, quoted in Miiller, Die 5 Pourrat, Theology of the Sacra-
symbolischen BUcher, p. 42: "Dam- ments, p. 181.

nant illos qui docent, quod sacra- 6 On the development of the doc-
men/a ex opere operato iustificant." trine among Protestants see Ilerzog's
On the changes in Luther's teach- Realenzyklopddie, Vol. XVII, 3rd
ing sec Pcsch, Praelect. Dogmat., ed., pp. 369 sqq., Leipzig 1906 (con-
Vol. VI, 3rd ed., p. 46. densed in The New Schaff-Herzog

4 Calvin, Instit., IV, 14, §12: Encyclopedia of Religious Knozvl-
" Hoc unicum est sacramentorum edge, Vol. X, pp. 143 sq.. New
officium, tit Dei promissinncs oculis York 1911).

nostris spectandas subiiciant et
earum nobis sint pignora."

124 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

" If any one saith that the Sacraments of the New Law
do not contain the grace which they signify ; or that
they do not confer that grace on those who do not place
an obstacle thereunto; as though they were merely out-
ward signs of grace or justice received through faith,
and certain marks of the Christian profession, whereby
believers are distinguished among men from unbelievers,
let him be anathema." ^ Therefore, the Sacraments are
more than signs instituted for the purpose of nourishing
the faith.^ They infallibly confer grace, not only on the
predestined, but on " all who receive them rightly." ^
Their efficacy is ex opere operato, i. e. derived from the ob-
jective value of the rite itself, not from the merits of
minister or subject.^**

2. The Dogmatic Teaching of the Church
Explained and Defended. — It is an article of
faith, as we have seen, that the Sacraments of
the New Law produce their effects ex opere
operato; whence it may be concluded that the

7 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can.
6: "Si quis dixerit, sacramenta
Novae Legis non continere gratiam
quam significant aut gratiam ipsain
non ponentibiis obicem [i. e. dis-
positis'i non conferre, quasi signa
tantutn externa sint acceptae per
fidem gratiae et iustitiae et notae
quaedam christianae professionis,
quibus apud homines discerniintur
fideles ab infidelibus, anathema sit."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 849).

8 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can.
S : " Si quis dixerit, haec sacra-
menta propter solam fidem niitricn-
dam instituta fuisse, anathema sit."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 848).

9 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can.

7: "Si quis dixerit, non dart
gratiam per huiusmodi sacramenta
semper et omnibus, quantum est ex
parte Dei, etiamsi rite ea suscipiant,
sed aliquando et aliquibus, ana-
thema sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart,
n. 850).

10 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can.
8: " Si quis dixerit, per ipsa Novae
Legis sacramenta ex opere operato
non conferri gratiam, sed solam
fidem divinae promissionis ad gra-
tiam consequendam sufficere, ana-
thema sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart,
n. 850. On the topic of this sub-
division cfr. Bellarmine, De Sacra-
mentis in Genere, I, 13-17.

EFFICACY 125

formulas employed In their administration are not
merely exhortatory, but consecratory. It is also
of faith that, in order to receive the Sacraments
unto justification, the sinner must receive them
''rightly," that is, with the proper disposition.
We shall set forth this teaching in three distinct
theses.

Thesis I: The Sacraments are really and truly
efficient causes ex opere operate, producing their effects
independently of the merits and disposition of the re-
cipient.

This proposition is de fide.

Proof. The Council of Trent defines the
efficacy of the Sacraments both negatively and
positively: negatively, by pointing out that they
are not merely outward signs instituted for the
sake of nourishing the faith, or marks of Chris-
tian profession ; positively, by declaring that they
"contain the grace which they signify" and con-
fer it "in virtue of the act performed" (ex opere
operato).

To say that the Sacraments produce their effects inde-
pendently of the disposition of the recipient, does not
mean that they require no moral preparation on his part.
On the contrary, we know that such preparation is neces-
sary to enable the Sacraments to produce the full effect
required for justification." According to the Tridentine
Council, this necessary preparation consists in " not plac-

11 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, pp. 285 sqq.

126 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ing an obstacle to grace," i. e. in removing any previous
indisposition opposed to the character of the respective
Sacrament.

( I ) That the performance of the sacramental
rite not merely signifies but actually produces
grace, can be shown from both Scripture and
Tradition.

a) Sacred Scripture again and again points to
the causal relation existing between the sacra-
mental sign and grace. Cfr. John III, 5 : "Un-
less a man be born again of water and the Holy
Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of
God." ^- An analysis of this text shows that St.
John ascribes spiritual rebirth {%. e. justification)
to the element of Baptism as its instrumental
cause ; for the particle ''ex" refers not only to the
Holy Ghost, but likewise to the water : ''ex aqua
et Spiritu Sancto." As truly, therefore, as the
spiritual rebirth of a man is caused principally
by the Holy Ghost, so is it caused instrumentally
by the water, and consequently, the water of
Baptism exercises a causal influence on justifica-
tion. In confirmation we may quote Tit. Ill, 5 :
"He saved us, by the laver of regeneration, and
renovation of the Holy Ghost." " The very ex-
pression "laver of regeneration" proves the sac-

i2loa. Ill, 5: " Nisi quis rcnatus isTit. Ill, 5: " Salvos nos fecit

fucrit ex aqua et Spiritu Sancto, per lavacrum regencrationis et
11011 potest introire in rcgnum Dei." renovationis Spiritus Sancti,"

EFFICACY 127

ramental efficacy of the baptismal water, and still
more the phrasing of the passage : 'Tie saved us
by the laver of regeneration."

In other Biblical texts the ablative of instru-
ment is used to denote the same fact. Cfr. Eph.
V, 26 : ". . . cleansing it, by the laver of water
in the word of life," ^"^ where the Apostle evi-
dently means that a bath of water in the word
of life possesses the power of cleansing the inte-
rior man, i. e. justifying him. Cfr. Acts XXII,
16: "Be baptized, and wash away thy sins." ^^
When a physician orders a patient to take a medi-
cinal bath, that he may be cured of disease, the
bath becomes a means of regaining health. If
Baptism, therefore, obtains the forgiveness of
sins, the former is related to the latter as a cause
to its effect. Cfr. Acts II, 38: *'. . . be bap-
tized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ,
for the remission of your sins." ^^ Note that
those to whom these words were addressed by St.
Peter, had already embraced the faith and were
sorry for their sins.^^

A similar argument can be construed for the
other Sacraments — Confirmation, Acts VIII, 17;
the Holy Eucharist, John VI, 57 sqq. ; Penance,

14 Eph, V, 26: " Mundans lava- idlbid., II, 38: " Baptisetur

cro aquae (tw Xourpoi tov vdaros) unusquisque vestrum in nomine

in verba vitae." lesu ClirisH in remissionem pecca-

10 Act. XXII, 16: " Baptisare et torum vestrorum."

abhte peccata tua." n Cfr. Acts II, 37.

128 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

John XX, 22 sq. ; Extreme Unction, James V, 14
sq. ; Holy Orders, 2 Tim. I, 6.

The Scriptural texts cited by Protestants to show the
part faith takes in the process of justification are in no
wise incompatible with the efficacy of the Sacraments ex
opere operato. A careful analysis of these texts shows
that they apply either to objective belief, i. e. the doc-
trine of Christ (the Gospel) ^^ or to subjective faith,
i. e. belief in the word of God.^° In the first-mentioned
case faith, i. e. the object of faith, justifies in so far as
divine revelation puts at man's disposal all the means of
justification, including the Sacraments.^^ In regard to
texts that fall under the latter category it must be re-
marked that the subjective faith of justification is either
formata or informis, i. e. a faith vivified by perfect
charity or not vivified at all, and therefore dead.
The fides formata justifies of itself, while the fides
informis remains inefficacious until it has absorbed
the remaining dispositive acts and achieved its consum-
mation in the Sacrament."^ In both cases we are dealing
with a true causality of faith in the matter of justification,
though this causality is of a different order than that of
the Sacraments. Faith, as such, is merely a dispositive
cause of justification, — part of its causa niaterialis, —
whereas a Sacrament is a true efficient cause, though, of
course, dependent for its efficacy on the disposition of
the recipient, as upon a condition, because " wet wood can-
not catch fire." ^^

18 For more detailed information 2i Cfr. Matth. XVI, i6 sq,

on this point we refer the reader 22 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac-
ta the special treatises on the differ- tual and Habitual, pp. 298 sq.
ent Sacraments. 23 That the fiduciary faith of the

19 Cfr. Rom. I, 16; i Cor. XV, i Lutherans does not justify, but is an
sq. ; I Pet. I, 23 sqq. ; Jas. I, 18. unscriptural figment, has been dem-

20 Cfr. Heb. XI, 6. onstrated in our treatise on Grace,

EFFICACY 129

b) The Fathers are clear and positive in their
teaching on the efficacy of the Sacraments.
Their expressions concerning Baptism, which are
characteristic of their whole attitude on the sub-
ject, may be grouped around several fundamental
conceptions.

The Fathers are filled with admiration at the power of
the water which, in the Sacrament of Baptism, produces
interior holiness. " Is it not wonderful," says Tertullian,
"that death should be washed away by bathing? But it
is the more to be believed if the wonderfulness be the
reason it is not believed. For of what kind does it
behoove divine works to be, except that they be
above all wonder? We also ourselves wonder, but it is
because we believe." -* St. Cyril of Jerusalem says in an
address to his neophytes : " Each one of you was asked
whether he believes in the name of the Father and of
the Son and of the Holy Ghost. You have pronounced
the salutary profession, you have been thrice immersed in
the water, thereby symbolizing Christ's stay of
three days in the tomb. For just as our Saviour spent
three days and three nights in the bowels of the earth,
so you, in emerging the first time from the water, have
imitated the first day, and in being immersed, the night
which Christ spent in the earth, . . . and at the same
moment you died and were born again ; that salutary

pp. 286 sqq. For a more detailed 24 De Bapt., c. 2: " Nonne mi-

treatment we must refer the student randum est, lavacro dilui mortem?

to Franzelin, De Sacramentis in Gc- Atqui eo magis credcndum, si quia

nere, thes. 8. Other objections from mirandum est. idcirco non creditur.

Holy Scripture are effectively re- Qualia enim decet esse opera divina

futed by De Augustinis, De Re Sa- nisi super omncm admirationemf

cramentaria. Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 84 Nos quoque ipsi miramur, sed quia

sqq. credimus."

130 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

wave became alike your grave and your mother . . . O
new and unheard-of species of things ! " ^^

The power thus inherent in the baptismal laver is a
truly divine power unto justification. " You have seen
water," says Pseudo-Ambrose, " but not all water heals ;
that water heals which has the grace of Christ. The
element is one thing, the consecration another; the work
is one thing, the operation another. The work is the
water, the operation is of the Holy Ghost. The water
does not heal unless the Spirit descends and consecrates
it." ^^ Similarly Cyril of Alexandria : " As water
poured into a kettle, if exposed to intense heat, absorbs
the power thereof, so the material water, through the oper-
ation of the [Holy] Spirit, is changed into a divine, un-
speakable virtue and sanctifies all on whom it is found." -^

The influence of the baptismal water is compared to
that of the maternal womb. Thus St. Chrysostom says :
" What the womb is for the child, that is water for the
faithful Christian ; for in water he is shaped and formed.
In the beginning it was said (Gen. I, 20) : ' Let the wa-
ters bring forth the creeping creature having life.' But
since the Lord descended into the Jordan, the water no
longer brings forth creeping creatures, but rational souls
that bear within themselves the Holy Ghost. . . . What is
formed in the womb, requires time. Not so in the water :
there everything happens in an instant." -^ St. Leo the
Great compares the baptismal font to the virginal womb
of Mary : " The origin which [Christ] took in the womb

25 Cat. Myst., 2, c. 4. tus Sancti est. Non sanat aqua, nisi

26 De Sacrament., I, 5: " Vidisti Spiritus descendcrit et aquam illam
aquam, sed non aqua omnis sanat; consecraverit."

sed aqua sanat quae habet gratiani 27 In loa., 1. II (Migne, P. C,

Christi. Aliud est elementum, aliud LXXIII, 243).

consecratio ; aliud opus, aliud opera- 28 Horn, in loa., 6, n. i (Migne,

tic. Aqua opus est, opcratio Spiri- P. G., LIX, 153)-

EFFICACY 131

of the Virgin, He placed in the font of Baptism. He gave
to the water what He had given to His mother. For the
virtue of the Most High and the overshadowing of the
Holy Spirit, which caused Mary to bring forth the
Saviour, also causes the water to regenerate the believ-
ing [Christian]." ^^

The efficacy of Baptism does not depend on the personal
merits of the recipient. St. Augustine says : " Baptism
does not consist in the merits of those by whom it is ad-
ministered, nor in the merits of those to whom it is ad-
ministered, but in its own sanctity and truth, on account
of Him by whom it has been instituted, [it is] for the
perdition of those who use it badly and for the salvation
of those who use it well." ^'^ Tertullian attributes a
like efficacy to all the Sacraments. " The flesh is
washed off," he says, " in order that the soul may be
cleansed ; the flesh is anointed, in order that the soul may
be consecrated ; the flesh is signed, in order that the soul
may be fortified ; the flesh is overshadowed by the impo-
sition of hands, in order that the soul may be illuminated
by the Holy Spirit; the flesh is fed with the body and
blood of Christ, in order that the soul may be nourished
by God."

20 Serm. in Nativ. Dom., 5, c. s- eum, a quo institutns est, male uten-

" Originem quam sumpsit [Christiis'i tibus ad perniciem, bene utentibtts

in ntcro virginis, posuit in fonte bap- ad salutem."

tismatis. Dedit aquae quod dedit 3i De Resurrect. Cam., c. 8:

matri. Virtus enim AUissimi et " Caro abluitur tit anima emaculctur,

obumbratio Spiritus Sancti, quae caro ungilur ut anima consecretur,

fecit ut Maria pareret Salvatorem, caro signatur ut anima muniatnr,

cadeni facit ut rcgeneret unda ere- caro manus impositione adumbra-

dcntem." tur ut et anima Spiritu illuminetur,

30 Contr. Crescon., IV, 16, 19: caro corpore Christi et sanguine

" Non eorum meritis, a quibus mi- vescitur ut anima de Deo saginetur."

nistratur, nee eorum quibus mini- Cfr. Franzelin, De Sacram. in Ge-

stratur, constat baptismus, scd pro- nere, thes. 6; Bellarmine, De Sa-

prid, sanctitate et veritate propter cram., II, 5-7.

132 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

c) The theological argument for our thesis is
based partly on the practice of infant Baptism
and partly on the fact that the Protestant doc-
trine entails absurd consequences.

a) If infant Baptism (paedobaptismiis) blots out orig-
inal sin by the infusion of sanctifying grace, this cannot
be except on the supposition that Baptism produces its
efifects without regard to human merits. Hence the prac-
tice of infant Baptism furnishes an argument for the effi-
cacy of the Sacraments ex opere operato. And since in
the primitive Church Baptism was immediately followed
by Confirmation and Communion, the administration of
these two Sacraments to infants is likewise an argument
to the same effect. That the belief in such efficacy of
the Sacraments can be traced back to the Apostolic
age, is plain from the statement of Origen ^~ that infant
Baptism was practiced at that time. The cogency
of this inference is admitted by Harnack, who says that
a " superstitious idea of Baptism " is found already in
Tertullian ^^ and Irenaeus,^* and adds : " This appears
also from the practice of infant Communion, which,
though first attested by Cyprian, can hardly be of later
origin than infant Baptism. Communion seemed equally
indispensable with Baptism, and the child had just as
much right to that magic celestial food as the adult." ^'
This is a plain admission that the Catholic view of the
efficacy of the Sacraments, as defined by the Tridentine
Council, goes back to the first centuries of the Christian
era, which is sufficient evidence that it is true.

|S) That the Lutheran system of justification cannot

32 In Epist. ad Rom., 5, 9. 35 Harnack Lehrbuch dcr Dog-

33 De Bapt., c. 18. mengeschichte, Vol. I, 3rd ed., p.

34 Adv. Haer., II, 22, 4. 438.

EFFICACY 133

consistently admit any Sacraments in the Catholic sense
of the term, is convincingly demonstrated by the same
Rationalist theologian : " Luther not only did away with
the septenary number of the Sacraments, — that is the
least thing he did, — but he upset the entire Catholic
idea of the Sacraments by triumphantly demonstrating
these three propositions : ( i ) that the Sacraments were
instituted for the forgiveness of sins, and for no other
purpose; (2) that ' non implentur dum Hunt, sed diim
credunttir ; ' (3) that they are a peculiar form of the
saving Word of God (of the promissio Dei fulfilling
itself), and consequently derive their power from the
historic Christ. Carrying this teaching to its logical
conclusions, Luther reduced the Sacraments to two
(three), nay, at bottom to one, viz.: the Word of God." ^^
The question naturally suggests itself : If this is so,
why do Protestants baptize their children? What is the
use of Sacraments if they are so immensely inferior
to preaching and have no reasonable purpose except per-
haps to serve as an object-lesson for the ignorant? They
do not even serve that purpose well. " According to
this view," says Gutberlet, " the baptismal rite would
most effectively fulfil its purpose of awaking the faith,
if the preacher proclaimed the divine promise from
the pulpit, while the sacristan ostentatiously washed each
single baptisandus with as large a quantity of water as
possible. The congregation would thus receive a more
vivid impression of the purification signified by Baptism
than if each person submitted to the operation himself.
At all events it would not be necessary for each indi-
vidual to be baptized. TJie public Baptism of one would
lead hundreds and thousands to believe and be justified.

30 O/i. cit.. Vol. Ill, 3rd ed., p. 72.

134 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Such absurd conclusions are entailed by a denial of the
objective efficacy of the Sacraments, a truth so clearly
taught in Holy Scripture." ^^

If the " orthodox " Lutherans nevertheless persist in
holding that sins are remitted in infant Baptism (though
only in the sense of a mere covering up of the soul and
hiding its wickedness from the sight of God), we can not
but conclude that at heart they believe in the efficacy of
Baptism ex opere operato, which Luther so vigorously
rejected.

We must now more fully explain the meaning of the
technical phrase ex opere operato.

(2) The traditional teaching of the Church re-
garding the efficacy of the Sacraments was, at
the beginning of the thirteenth century, couched
in the technical formula: "Sacramenta operan-
tur ex opere operato," which was later on officially
adopted by the Council of Trent.

a) So far as we know the phrase occurs for the first
time in the writings of Peter of Poitiers (d. 1204), who
says : " The act of baptizing is not identical with Bap-
tism, because it is an opus operans, while Baptism is an
opus operatum." ^® It was adopted by Pope Innocent
III/9 William of Auxerre,*° Alexander of Hales,^^ Albert
the Great,*^ and St. Bonaventure,*^ but was not yet in
general use when St. Thomas wrote his commentary on

37 Dogmat. Theol., Vol. IV, p. 95. 4i Summa Theol., 4a, qu. 3, n.

&& Sent., P. s, c. 6: " Baptisatio 4, art. i.
. . . est aliud opus quani baptismns, 42 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.

quia est opus operans, sed baptis- 1, art. 5.
mus est opus operatum." 43 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i,

39 De Myst. Missae, III, 5. p. i, art. 1, qu. 5.

40 Summa Aurea, 1. IV, art. 2.

EFFICACY 135

the Liber Sententiarum, for the AngeHc Doctor says:
" By some the sacrament itself is called opus opera-
turn." ^*

The grammatical opposition between opus operans and
opus operatum shows that in the former phrase operari is
used actively, in the latter passively. The use of the past
participle of a deponent verb in a passive sense is often met
with in conversational Latin and in the more elaborate
writings of classical authors, and hence there is no need
to seek for a different explanation, as Mohler did when he
suggested : "" ex opere operato, scilicet a Christo, instead of
quod operatus est Christus." ^'^ Needless to say, the
theological sense of the formula is not to be deduced from
grammatical considerations but from the decrees of Trent.
The Tridentine Fathers wished to oppose the objective
character of the Sacraments as effective means of grace,
to the subjectivism of the Reformers, and with this
purpose in view defined the Catholic teaching as follows :
" If any one saith that by the said Sacraments of the
New Law grace is not conferred ex opere operato, but
that faith alone in the divine promises [opus operantis
s. recipientis] suffices for the obtaining of grace, let him
be anathema." ''^ The meaning of the formula ex opere
operato, therefore, is plainly this: (i) that it is the correct
use of the sign instituted by Christ which confers the grace
of justification; (2) that the grace conferred is not de-
rived from the merits of either the minister or the
recipient (ex opere operantis), though both the free
action of the former and the moral preparation of the
latter (if he be an adult) are required for the validity

44 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i, 8: " Si qnis di.rerit, per ipsa Novae
art. 4: " Ipsum sacramcntiim diet- Legis sacramenta ex opere operato
tur a quibusdam opus operatum." nan conferri gratiam, sed solam

45 Symbolism, §28. fidem [ex opere operantis] . . .

46 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can. sufKcere, anathema sit."

136 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

and worthy reception of the Sacrament. To emphasize
the last-mentioned requisite the Council adds that
the Sacraments " confer grace on those who do not
place an obstacle thereunto," and again : " As far as
God's part is concerned, grace is . , . given through the
. . . Sacraments always and to all men." " The free
action of the minister is required, because without his
combining matter and form with the corresponding in-
tention (opus operans), there can be no opus operatum.
On the other hand, the Sacrament is frustrated in its
effects if the subject " places an obstacle " {obex gratiac)
by not having the right disposition. On this point the
teaching of the Council regarding justification "'^ applies
in full force. It is as necessary to prepare for the
worthy reception of a Sacrament as it is to prepare for
justification.'"'

b) This explanation is sufficient to disprove both the
intentional and unintentional misunderstandings of the
formula ex opere operato found in many Protestant con-
troversial works, beginning with the Augsburg Confes-
sion.^" The oft-repeated accusation, invented by Calvin
and Chemnitz, that Catholics attribute " a magic efifect "
to the Sacraments, is based on the mistaken assumption
that the Church requires neither faith nor a good impulse
of the heart for their worthy reception even in the case
of lay adults. One expects " a magic effect " only from

47 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can. iottim populum scholasticorum doc-
6: "... sacramenta conferre gra- torum qui docent quod sacramenta
tiam non ponentibus obicetn." — non ponenti obicem conferant gra-
Can. 7: "... dari gratiam per tiam ex opere operato sine bono
sacramenta semper et omnibus, motu utentis. Haec simpliciter
quantum est ex parte Dei." iudaica opinio est sentire, quod per

48 Sess. VI, can. 6-7. caeremoniani iustificemur sine bono

49 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Ac- motu cordis, hoc est, sine fide."
tual and Habitual, pp. 272 sqq. (Miiller, Die symbol. Bticher, p.

50 Art. 13, n. 18: " Damnamus 204).

EFFICACY 137

an inadequate natural agent or from the devil. Why
should we look to the baptismal water for magical effects,
since we attribute the regeneration of the soul principally
to the Holy Ghost? The charge, made in the Augs-
burg Confession, that the Scholastics believed that the
Sacraments confer grace sitie bono motii cordis et sine
■fide, is no longer upheld in such a sweeping form by
Protestant controversialists, though they still insist that the
Schoolmen, from Scotus to Gabriel Biel, regarded every
good impulse of the heart as superfluous, until Cropper
and Bellarmine, pressed by the Reformers, laid greater
stress upon the moral cooperation of the recipient. The
simple truth is that the Scholastics, in treating of the Sac-
raments, assumed the Catholic teaching on justification to
be well known, and by no means neglected to insist on the
need of a proper preparation. The very passages adduced
by our opponents from Scotus and Biel, though badly mu-
tilated, clear these writers of the charge made against
them. Scotus, in teaching that " a Sacrament of the New
Law confers grace by virtue of the act performed (ex
virtnte operis operati), so that there is not required a good
impulse of the heart which would merit grace, but it is
sufficient that the recipient place no obstacle," ^^ clearly
presupposes not only a proper disposition,^- but the re-
moval of obstacles, i. e. due preparation on the part of
the recipient. What the " Subtle Doctor " denies is sim-
ply and solely that it is by the bonus niotus required for
the worthy reception of a Sacrament that man merits the
grace of justification. This is also the plain teaching of

61 Comment, in Sctit., IV, dist. gratiam, sed stifficit quod suscipicns
T, qu. 6, n. 10: " Sacramentum non ponat obicem."
Novae Legis ex virtnte operis operati 02 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.

confert gratiam, ita quod non requi- i, qu. 4: "... aiiqttalcm displi-
ritur ibi bonus mollis qui mereatur ccntiam de peccatis et propositum

caz'cndi de cctero."

138 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Gabriel Biel.^^ The Protestant objection against the
Schoolmen really strikes at Luther's doctrine that justifi-
cation is wrought by faith alone. There can surely be
no worse preparation for justification than to follow the
advice: " Pecca fortiter, crede fortius."

Thesis II : Since the Sacraments produce their ef-
fects ex opere operate, the words which constitute
their " form " have not merely the value of an exhor-
tation but are in a true sense consecratory.

This proposition embodies a theological con-
clusion.

Proof. Whereas in the Lutheran theory of
justification the sacramental form is a mere ver-
bum concionale, i. c. purely an exhortation, Catho-
lics regard it as a verhuin consecratoriwn, i. e. as
sanctifying. The Tridentine Council declares:
"If anyone saith that these Sacraments were in-
stituted for the sake of nourishing faith alone, let
him be anathema." And : 'Tf anyone saith that
the Sacraments of the Nev\^ Law do not contain
the grace which they signify, or that they do not
confer that grace on those who do not place an
obstacle thereunto, as though they were merely
outward signs of grace or justice received

53 For a defense of Biel see Hire Methoden, Grundsatse u)td
Bellarmine, De Sacram., II, i, and Aufgahen, 2nd ed., pp. 135 sqq.,
Franzelin, De Sacram. in Gen., thes. Cologne 1902 (English tr.. New
7. York 1914); A. Seitz, Die Heils-

54 Cfr. Schanz, Die Lehre von notwendigkcit der Kirche nach dcr
den hi. Sakramenten, pp. 131 sqq., altchristUchen Literatur bis sur Zeit
Freiburg 1893; Heinrich-Gutberlet, dcs hi. Augustinus, pp. 267 sqq.,
Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IV, Freiburg 1903.

§ 487; J. Mausbach, Die kath. Moral,

EFFICACY 139

through faith, and certain marks of the Christian
profession, whereby believers are distinguished
among men from unbehevers; let him be an-
athema." ^^

Of course the Catholic Church does not exclude the
exhortatory element. It is evident from the significant
ceremonies surrounding their administration, that the
Sacraments are intended as means of nourishing the
faith and as outward pledges of the divine promise of
forgiveness. But this purpose is secondary. The pri-
mary object of the Sacraments is practical sanctification,
not theoretical instruction. They are above all signa
practica et efficacia gratiae, and only secondarily signa
theoretica concionalia in the meaning previously ex-
plained.^^ In the light of this explanation it is impos-
sible to accept the Modernist contention that " the Sac-
raments are designed solely to recall to man's memory the
everlasting and beneficent presence of the Creator." ^^

a) If we consider Baptism and the Holy Eu-
charist,— the only two Sacraments which Protes-
tants have retained, — we find that the words
of institution, as spoken by our Divine Saviour,
do not contain a "sermon of faith" nor a
''divine promise," but are primarily and prin-
cipally designed to consecrate the natural ele-
ments of water, bread, and wine, in such wise
that "thing" and "word" become the matter and
form of an external sign which symbolizes and
effects internal grace.^

B5 Sess. VII, can. 5 ancj 6, 07 Dcnzingcr-Bannwart, n. 2041.

56 V. supra, p. 14. 68 V. supra, Ch. II, Sect. 1.

140 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

If the Sacraments had for their main object to nourish
the faith or to inspire trust in the divine promises, as
Protestants assert, it would be more appropriate, in ad-
ministering Baptism, to employ the words : " Unless a
man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he can-
not enter into the kingdom of God," ^^ and in giving
Communion, the text : " He that eateth my flesh, and
drinketh my blood, hath everlasting life : and I will raise
him up in the last day." ®° As a matter of fact, if
these words were employed, there would be no Sacra-
ment, because the divinely instituted form of Baptism
is : "I baptize thee," etc., whilst that of the Consecration
runs : " This is my body," etc. Note, also, that St. Paul
draws a sharp distinction between baptizing and preach-
ing the Gospel : " Christ sent me not to baptize, but to
preach the gospel." ^^

b) For the teaching of the Fathers, see Thesis
I, supra.

Harnack says of Luther: " He showed that even the
most enlightened among the Fathers had but hazy no-
tions on this, the most important point of all [i. e. that the
word of God is the only Sacrament]. Augustine has
much to say about the sacrament, but very little about
the word, and the Scholastics have made the matter
still more obscure. Luther attacks both the magic of
the opus operatum and the disparity of the salutary
effect of the Sacraments according to the disposition of
the recipient. . . . He destroys the convenient, yet so
important notion of ' vehicles of grace,' and puts into
the Sacrament the living Christ, who as Christus praedi-

59 John III, 5. misit me Christus baffisare, sed

60 John VI, 5S. evangeliaarc." (On St. Paul's

61 1 Cor. I, 17: " Non enim teaching see MacRory's Commen-

tary, Dublin 1915).

EFFICACY

141

catiis subdues the old man and awakes the new." ^^ If
Augustine " says so much about the sacrament and so little
about the word," as Harnack alleges, how comes it that he
is constantly cjuoted in support of the Lutheran theory that
the sacramental form is purely exhortatory? But even
here it is a mere straw at which our adversaries grasp,
St. Augustine teaches : " ' Now you are clean because of
the word I have spoken to you.' Why does He [Christ]
not say : You are clean because of the Baptism by which
you have been washed ? Why does He say : because
of the word which I have spoken to you, unless it be for
the reason that the word cleanses also in the water?
Take away the word, and what is the water but mere
water? The word is added to the element, and there
is a sacrament, which itself is as a visible word. Whence
does this water receive such virtue that it touches the body
and cleanses the heart, unless through the operation of the
word, not because it is spoken, but because it is believed.
For in the very word itself the transient sound is one
thing, the virtue that remains, another. . . . This word of
faith has such power in the Church of God that through
him who believes, offers up, blesses and washes, it cleanses
even the smallest infant, although as yet unable to believe
with the heart unto justice and to profess the faith with
the mouth unto salvation." ^^ The very fact that Augus-

62 Lclirbuch d. Dogmengcschichte,
Vol. Ill, 3rd ed., p. 72, Freiburg
1896.

<i3 Tract, in loa., 20, n. 3: " lam
vos niiindi estis propter verbum
quod locutus sum vobis. Quarc
non ait: Mundi cstis propter bap-
tismitm quo loti estis, sed ait:
Propter verbum quod locutus sum
vobis, nisi quia et in aqua verbum
mundatf Detrahc verbum et quid
est aqua nisi aqua? Accedit ver-

bum ad elementum et fit sacramcn-
tum etiam ipsum tamquam visibile
verbum. Unde ista tanta virtus
aquae, ut corpus tangat et cor
abluat nisi faciente verbo, non quia
dicitur, sed quia creditur? Nam et
in ipso verbo aliud est sonus tran-
siens, aliud virtus mancns. . . .
Hoc verbum fidci tantum valet in
Ecclcsia Dei, ut per ipsam creden-
tem, offcrentem, benedicentent, tin-
gentcm etiam tantillum mundet in-

142 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

tine attributes to the "word "in conjunction with water
such a wonderful power to cleanse the heart, even in
the case of infants who have not yet attained the use
of reason, shows that he derives the efficacy of Baptism
from the rite performed (ex opere operato), not from
the word as preached or from the subjective faith of the
recipient. Hence, the " word of faith," in the passage
quoted, is simply the baptismal formula, which, con-
jointly with the material element, constitutes the Sac-
rament, consecrates the materia, and at the same time em^-
bodies the " objective faith," i. e. the baptismal symbol

Thesis III: The efficacy of the Sacraments ex
opere operato by no means excludes, but rather presup- %
poses, a proper diposition on the part of the recipient.

Tlie proof for this thesis will be found in Ch.
IV, Sect. 2, infra. Cfr. also Thesis I, supra.
Regarding the influence which the disposition of
the recipient exerts on the measure of grace he re-
ceives, see Ch. II, Sect. 2, Art i. Thesis III, supra.

fantcin, quamvis nondum valentein tion consult Franzelin, De Sacram.

corde credere ad iustitiam et ore in Gen., thes. 9, schol. 2; De Au-

confiteri ad salutem." gustinis, De Re Sacram., Vol. I, 2nd

C4 For a more exhaustive treat- ed., pp. 163 sqq.
ment of the argument from Tradi-

SECTION 2

WHETHER THE SACRAMENTS ARE PHYSICAL
OR MORAL CAUSES OF GRACE

I. State of the Question. — The Sacraments,
as we have shown, produce their effects ex opere
operato. But how, in what manner? Is their
efficacy physical, or purely moral, or both?

a) A moral cause {causa moralis) is one which,
through the exercise of some moral influence (such as a
command, a counsel, or a request) determines a rational
being to action. The death of our Divine Saviour was
such a moral cause, in so far as it moved God to have
mercy on sinful humanity. Let it not be objected that
the effective intercession of one person for another, such
as that of the crucified Redeemer for us, is a final rather
than an efficient cause, because it constitutes a true motive
to attain a desired end. Every moral cause operates be-
cause of its presence {quia est), whereas a final cause
operates in order that something else may come into
being {ut sit). The passion and death of Christ being
the " meritorious cause of justification," ^ is certainly
not the physical cause of our salvation ; but, on the other
hand, it is more than a final cause, and consequently, it is
the true moral cause of justification.

A physical cause {causa physica) is one which by its

1 Cone. Trident., Scss. VII, cap. 7.
143

144 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

action produces an immediate effect, as when a carpenter
makes a table.

Both physical and moral causes are either principal
(causa principalis) or instrumental (causa instru-
nientalis) . What a saw is in the hands of a carpenter,
that, mutatis mutandis, an ambassador is in the hands of
his government. Carpenter and government are princi-
pal, saw and ambassador instrumental causes.

A cause, no matter whether physical or moral, prin-
cipal or instrumental, is both really and logically dis-
tinct from a condition. A condition, even though it be
indispensable (conditio sine qua non), is merely some-
thing that is required in order that something else may
exist, but it has no part in producing its effects. A cause
is also distinct from a mere occasion (occasio, causa
occasionalis), i. e. a conjunction which facilitates an
effect, but is not necessary to its production.^

b) In applying these metaphysical concepts to
the Sacraments, we must first of all guard against
the false notion (unjustly attributed by Dom.
Soto to Alexander of Hales, St. Bonaventure,
Duns Scotus, and other Scholastic theologians),
that the Sacraments are merely a conditio sine
qua non, or the occasion, of sanctifying grace.

To say that the Sacraments are merely the condition
or occasion of the bestowal of sanctifying grace in-
volves a practical denial of the dogma that they produce
their effects ex opere operato, and destroys the essential
distinction between the Sacraments of the Old and those

2 Cfr. John Rickaby, S. J., General Metaphysics, pp. 339 sqq.

(Stonyhurst Series).

MANNER OF OPERATION 145

of the New Law. The principle that the Sacraments
are true sigiia cfticacia must be so firmly upheld that, if
it were demonstrated that as moral causes they would
be no more than mere " conditiones " or " occasiones,"
we should prefer to admit that their efficacy is physical,
even though this theory involves some difficulties. For
this reason it is of the greatest importance to prove that
the sacramental signs are at least true moral causes
of grace (Thesis I). In the case of some of the
Sacraments, their moral operation is perhaps supple-
mented by a physical influence. This is true especially of
the Holy Eucharist.^ In the case of the other Sacraments
it is preferable to assume a purely moral causality, as
weighty arguments can be alleged against the theory of
physical causation (Thesis II).

Before discussing this difficult problem it is important
to establish accurately the state of the question. Assum-
ing, what is self-evident, that the Sacraments as such are
merely instruments {causae instrumentales) in the hand
of God, and that God, as their causa principalis, physi-
cally produces sanctifying grace in the soul, the funda-
mental problem at issue may be formulated as follows :
Does the external sign receive from God a peculiar super-
natural power enabling it physically to produce sanctify-
ing grace in the soul, either by a quality inherent in
the rite, as Billuart and the Thomists contended, or by
an external stimulation of the potcntia obcdiejitialis in the
soul, as Suarez held? By formulating the question thus
we avoid the ambiguity involved in the assertion that the
Divine Omnipotence, as embodied and included in the sac-
ramental sign, physically produces grace (Viva), or that
the Holy Ghost exerts a physical causality in the applica-

3 See the treatise on tlic Holy Eucharist.

146 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

tion of the external sign (Berti). These assertions,
correct enough in themselves, do not touch the point at
issue. The problem to be decided is whether or not
the sacramental sign as such, i. e. as an instrument dis-
tinct from the Divine Omnipotence and from the Holy
Ghost, exerts a physical efficacy after the manner of a
physical cause.

2. Dogmatic Theses. — If it can be shown that
the sacramental signs are endowed with a true,
though purely moral causality, we may, without
trenching on the dogmatic teaching of the Church,
set aside the theory that they are physical causes
of grace. Taking this ground will enable us to
shatter the absurd Protestant contention that
the Church attributes a sort of magic efficacy to
her Sacraments.

Thesis I : All the Sacraments, as acts of their invis-
ible author and chief minister, Jesus Christ, by vir-
tue of their immanent dignity, move God to the
(physical) production of grace, and hence exert at least
a moral causality.

This proposition may be technically qualified as
communis.

Proof. Even those theologians ^ who assert the
physical efficacy of the Sacraments, do not deny
their moral efficacy. Others ^ content them-
selves with upholding the moral efficacy of the
Sacraments, without fear ^ lest they be thereby de-

4 Suarez, Gonet, and Gutberlet. Sacram., thes. lo sq.), Chr. Pesch,

5 De Lugo (De Sacram. in Genere, Sasse, Tepe, et al.
disp. 4, sect, 4), Franzelin {De

MANNER OF OPERATION 147

prived of the ''mysterious" element in their opera-
tion. Indeed, is it not a profound mystery that
God allows Himself to be moved by an external
sign to bestow sanctifying grace?

The moral efficacy of the Sacraments is suf-
ficiently secured by two conditions : first, that the
sign instituted by Christ, according to moral esti-
mation, is considered as filled with the merits
of the passion and death of Christ, and secondly,
that the sacramental act of the human minister.
is looked upon as performed by our Divine
Saviour Himself. From these two elements
the sacramental rite receives an objective dignity
which raises it far above its natural meaning, con-
stitutes it the moral cause of the bestowal of
grace, and renders it independent of the spiritual
condition of the minister.

a) The argument from Sacred Scripture may
be formulated as follows: Christ's passion is
the moral, because it is the meritorious cause of
justification."^ Consequently, and a fortiori,
the Sacraments, being a mere application of the
merits of the passion, are only the moral cause
of justification. The Sacraments derive their
efficacy from their immediate relation, not only
to the blood of Christ,^ but likewise to His sacred

6 This fear is entertained by Atz- 8 Cfr. Col. I, 19 sq.; Heb. IX, 13
berger and Cihr. sq.; i Pet. I, 2, etc.

7 Cfr. Rom. V, 10; F.ph. I, 7; i
John 1, 7; Apoc. I, s, etc.

148 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Person, in whose name and as whose representa-
tive the human minister acts,*^ and thus they can-
not be merely conditions or occasions of grace.

I Pet. Ill, 21, we read: "Salvos facit haptisma, non
carnis depositio sordium, sed conscientiae bonae in-
terrogatio (iirepwrrj/Jia) in Deiim per resurrectionem
Christi." Our Eng-lish Bible renders this text as fol-
lows : "... Baptism . . . now saveth you also : not the
putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the examina-
tion of a good conscience towards God by the resurrec-
tion of Jesus Christ." Here the water of the Deluge, from
which some were rescued according to the body, is op-
posed to the water of Baptism, through which all faith-
ful Christians are saved according to the spirit, and
Baptism is declared to be more than a " putting away of
the filth of the flesh," i. e. more than a Levitic purification.
Whence does Baptism derive its power of spiritual regen-
eration? First of all from "the resurrection of Jesus
Christ," which term is here employed by synecdoche for
the entire work of the Redemption.^*' St. Peter goes on

to describe Baptism as (rwvetSr^o-ews aya6ij<; i-TrepojTrjixa ets

©£ov. The Greek word iir^pMTrjfxa in this connection can
only mean "question" (interrogatio) or "petition"
(rogatio, petitio), all other meanings — such as "vow"
(sponsio) or " treaty " (pactum) — being excluded either
for exegetical or lexicographical reasons. But the Latin
rendering of the Vulgate, " conscientiae bonae inter-
rogatio," which is followed by our English Bible, evi-
dently does not give the right sense. For to think of an
examination of the baptizandtts before Baptism would

9 Cfr. I Cor. I, 13, III, 4 sq., 10 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Soteriology,

IV, I. pp. loi sqq.

MANNER OF OPERATION 149

be to confuse an accidental rite with the essence of the
Sacrament, which the Apostle means to characterize.
Consequently, inepwrrjixa must here mean ^^ a prayer or
petition for a good conscience, i. e. a purified and re-
generated soul.^^ Now prayer and petition belong to the
category of moral causes, and consequently Baptism, —
and all the other Sacraments a pari, — exert a moral
efficacy.^^

b) Tradition asserts the moral causality of the
Sacraments wherever it speaks of the sacramental
sign as ''containing" the merits of Christ, who is
the meritorious cause of our salvation, or refers
to the human minister as a mere representative
of the Redeemer.

In the former case a Sacrament produces its effects
in the same way as the Precious Blood of Christ, i. c. as
a moral cause ; in the latter, the rite, conceived as an
action, has the same dignity and power before God as if
the Redeemer baptized, confirmed, consecrated,^* absolved,
etc., in person, employing the human minister merely as
His instrument or agent.^^

Needless to say, the human minister of a Sacrament
must not be identified with its Divine Institutor and
principal Administrator. The instrumental cause has its

11 Cfr. Matth. XVI, i: iirepuTr}- ic Cfr. St. Augustine, Contr. Lit.
(fav '=■ rogaveritnt. Petil., IH, 49, 50: "Hie [i. e.

12 Cfr. John III, 5. Christus^ est qui bapticat in Spiritit

13 On I Pet. Ill, 21, see Hund- Sancto, ncc, sicut Petilianus dicit,
hausen, Das erste Pontifikalschrci- tarn bapticare cessavit, sed adhuc id
ben dcs Apostelfiirstcn Petnts, ogit, non ministerio corporis, sed
Mainz 1873. invisibili opere maicstatis." Both

14 Cfr. the " Hoc est corpus these momenta are also emphasized
meum" in the Canon of the Mass, by St. Thomas iv. supra, p. 100, n.

I50 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

own peculiar operation, which does not coincide with that
of the principal cause. Therefore, all defects, such as
moral unworthiness, neglect, faulty pronunciation of the
form, etc., are imputable to the minister. If he were to
mutilate the baptismal formula in some non-essential
point, it would not be true to say : " The Lord has
baptized wrongly." Nor would it be right to say with re-
gard to Penance: "Christ confesses through the peni-
tent." But it would be proper to say : " Christ absolves the
sinner through the priest." Where the recipient him-
self has to furnish the matter of a sacrament, as in Con-
fession, the form alone is the work of the human min-
ister, and, in the last resort, of Christ. But even where
both matter and form are furnished by the minister,
it is not permissible to substitute Christ unconditionally
for His minister, though in most cases, as in the adminis-
tration of Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Orders, and Ex-
treme Unction, this would generally be true. Not so,
however, in the case of Matrimony, which is both
a human contract and a mystic relation, and consequently
limited to human beings, and hence it would be false to
say : " Christ enters into the matrimonial state." ^*^

c) To this may be added the following meta-
physical considerations. The Sacraments derive
their dignity from the merits and the ministerial
action of Jesus Christ. Not, of course, from any
merits acquired after His sacred passion or
any new motive arising in His holy will. A
Sacrament is merely an application of the exist-

6) ; cfr. Morgott, Der Spender der 16 For the solution of other dif-

hl. Sakramente nach der Lclire des ficulties see De Augustinis, De Re

hi. Thomas, pp. 2 sqq., Freiburg Sacramentaria, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp.

1886. 24s sqq.

MANNER OF OPERATION 151

ing merits of the Redeemer ; but it is more than a
mere condition or occasion of grace. It is a true
moral cause. Let us illustrate our meaning by an
example. A king grants a general amnesty to
all political offenders. Though this act of itself
objectively includes all, nevertheless, petitions
submitted by the convicts severally may be a moral
cause of pardon, inasmuch as by these petitions
the king is moved to apply his general will of
showing mercy to each separate individual.
Other examples sometimes adduced by theolo-
gians are less appropriate. Take, e. g., that of
"a man who, on presenting a leaden coin, receives,
by the king's command, a hundred pounds; not
as though the leaden coin, by any operation of its
own, caused him to be given that sum of money,
this being the effect of the mere will of the king."
St. Thomas, who cites this example, justly ob-
serves: *Tf we examine the question properly,
we shall see that according to the above mode
the Sacraments are mere signs; for the leaden
coin is nothing but a sign of the king's command
that this man should receive money." {^S. Th.,
3a, qu. 62, art. i.) If the simile is really to il-
lustrate the causality of the Sacraments, it must
be changed as follows: Man, in the Sacrament
which he receives, presents a gold coin, which,
on account of its intrinsic value, morally com-
pels his sovereign to be liberal. Melchior Cano

152 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

compares the recipient of a Sacrament to a man
who, by submitting a hst of the merits of Jesus
Christ, compels God to give the promised grace
as a quid pro quo. This example is somewhat
more pertinent but still inadequate. Velas-
quez's contention that the moral causality of the
Sacraments is owing to a merely impetratory in-
fluence is altogether unacceptable. The most sat-
isfactory theory is the one we have adopted, vis.:
that the objective dignity of the Sacraments is
due partly to the fact that they embody the effects
of the merits of Jesus Christ, and partly to the
act of their principal minister, i. e. our Lord Him-
self.

Thesis II: The Sacraments are not physical
causes of grace.

This proposition is held as "more probable" by
the majority of Catholic theologians.

Proof. The doctrine enunciated in our thesis
is defended by the Scotists without exception, by
Cano, Vasquez, De Lugo, Tournely, Franzelin,
De Augustinis, Pesch, Tepe, and others, against
almost the entire Thomist school and Suarez,
Bellarmine, Ysambert, Drouin, Schatzler, Katsch-
thaler, Oswald, Gutberlet, and Gihr. Since
the latter group all unhesitatingly admit the
moral causality of the Sacraments, whereby
the doctrine of their efficacy ex opere operato is

MANNER OF OPERATION 153

fully safeguarded, it is not easy to see why they
should, in addition, adopt the theory of physical
causality, which is both unprovable and unintel-
ligible.

a) It is unprovable. The Scriptural and Pa-
tristic arguments upon which these writers base
their contention merely prove the efficacy of the
Sacraments but nothing as to the manner in which
it is exercised. We may add, however, that the
exaggerations (suggesting physical causality)
upon which they lay so much stress may be wel-
come material in the defence of the real efficacy
of the Sacraments, — in the same way as the hy-
perboles of St. John Chrysostom in regard to the
real presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist are
often used in support of that dogma.

That such Biblical phrases as " born again of wa-
ter," ^^ " cleansing it by the laver of water," ^^ " He
saved us by the laver of regeneration," ^° etc., do not
necessarily imply a physical, but may be understood of a
moral efficacy, is evidenced by such parallel passages as :
" Being born again not of corruptible seed, but incorrupti-
ble, by the word of God," ~^ " We have redemption
through his blood," "^ " Alms is that which purgeth
away sins," ^^ and so forth. No doubt many Patristic

IT loa. in, s: " Renatus . . . ex scmine corruptibili, scd incorrnpti-

aqua." bill per verbum Dei vivi."

18 Eph. V, 26: " Mundans lava- 21 Eph. I, 7: " Habcmus redcmp-
cro aquae." tioncm per sanguincm cii(s."

19 Tit. in, 5: " Salvos nos fecit 22 Tob. XII, 9: '' Elctnosyna
per lavacrum rcgencrationis." . , . ipsa est, quae purgat pcccata."

20 1 Pet. I, 23: " Renali non ex

154 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

expressions regarding the efficacy of the Sacraments are
derived from physical phenomena, as e. g. the comparison
of Baptism to water that engenders fish, or to the ma-
ternal womb developing a foetus. But they are em-
ployed merely to prove the efficacy of the Sacraments,
not to define the nature of that efficacy. Whenever the
Fathers speak of physical causality as such, they refer
it either to the totum, as the synthesis of " omnipotence
and sign," or to the divine omnipotence alone, and thereby
indirectly admit that the sign, as sign, produces its effects
in a purely moral way.-^

It is claimed that the surprise which the Fathers often
betray at the mysterious power of the baptismal water
would be inexplicable, had they held the efficacy of
Baptism to be merely moral.^* But the theory of moral
causality leaves sufficient room for surprise and mystery.
Is not justification in view of a visible sign mysterious
enough? Does not the fact that God makes His grace
dependent on material elements challenge surprise and
admiration ?

b) The theory of physical causality is unintel-
ligible. In itself, this would not be a sufficient
reason for rejecting it; but it justifies us in de-
manding stringent proofs before admitting a new
theological mystery.

Scotus -^ and some of his followers declare that it is
impossible for a material element physically to produce

23 For the Patristic texts in proof 24 Cfr. Billuart, De Sacram., diss.

of this statement see De Augustinis, 3, art. 2.

De Re Sacrament., Vol. I, 2nd ed., 25 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i,

pp. 258 sqq.; Chr. Pesch, Praelect. qu. 5.
Dogmat., Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 65
sq.

MANNER OF OPERATION 155

supernatural effects. We would not go as far as that;
but we do hold with De Lugo that matters of religious
belief should not be unnecessarily rendered obscure or
difficult.-*^ The two principal arguments against the
theory of physical causality are based on the nature of
the sacramental rite and the revival of the Sacraments,
a) The whole sacramental sign never exists simul-
taneously. Either the sacramental form in its physical
entity has passed away, as in the reception of the Holy
Eucharist, or the matter is no longer present, as in the
absolution of a penitent who has confessed his sins the
day before he receives absolution. But even where mat-
ter and form coexist, as they do e. g. in Baptism, the
administration of the Sacrament requires time; that
which physically existed at the beginning no longer ex-
ists in the end, and vice versa. Now it is a philosophical
axiom that action supposes being, and consequently, noth-
ing can produce physical effects unless it has a physical
existence. Which part, then, of the sign produces the
effect ? Or does each part produce part of the effect? Is
justification divisible? Does it arrive by parts ? Clearly,
here is a new mystery. To escape the force of this argu-
ment, Suarez -^ and others declare that the bestowal of
grace is physically bound up with the last word or final syl-
lable of the sacramental form. Why not with the last let-
ter? — or, to be entirely consistent, with the last breath es-
caping from the mouth of the minister who pronounces
the formula? If only a part of the sign is efficacious,
what value has the remainder? Or, if it be admitted
that what has physically passed away endures morally

2G De Sacram., disp. 4, sect. 4, 27 De Sacrament., disp. 8, sect. 2,

n. 35: " Non debcinus res nostrae n. 15.
fidei absque necessitate difficiliores et
obscuriores reddere."

156 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

and produces moral effects, what reason is there to as-
sume that it is precisely the last word or syllable of
the form that becomes the physical instrument of grace?
Then, again, there are cases in which the necessary con-
ditions of physical efficacy are entirely absent, as in a
marriage contracted by proxy. Who would assert that
God causes the consent of a bride residing in New York
to produce a physical effect in the soul of her husband in
London, or vice versa? These and similar consequences
entailed by the theory of physical causation provoke the
scorn of infidels and help nothing towards clearing up
the mysterious action of the Sacraments.^^

)8) The possibility of a revival of the Sacraments
(reviviscentia sacramentorum) furnishes another con-
vincing argument against the theory of physical causality.
This argument may be briefly stated thus: The Sacra-
ments frequently confer grace in an exclusively moral
manner, as when Baptism is validly conferred on an
unworthy subject and attains its efficacy only after the
existing obstacle has been removed (reinoto obice). If
grace can be conferred by a purely moral influence in ex-
ceptional cases, why assume that it produces its ordinary
effects by physical causation ? Baptism, though physically
past, effects in its unworthy subject, as soon as he acquires
the proper disposition, spiritual regeneration and forgive-
ness of sins. This cannot be a physical effect, because
the cause is no longer present when the effect sets in,
as even Suarez admits.^^

The contention of certain Thomists that the sacra-
mental character is the physical medium of grace, is in-
admissible. To produce grace is not the purpose of the

28 Cfr. Vasquez, Comment, in 20: " In eo casu sacramentum prae-
Sent., Ill, disp. 123, c. 6. teritum non concurrit per physicam

29 De Sacratn., disp. 9, sect. 2, n. efUcientiam ad gratiam praestandam."

MANNER OF OPERATION 157

character, but of the Sacrament itself. Besides, there
are Sacraments which, though they confer the sacra-
mental character, are incapable of being revived. Where,
for instance, is grace to find its physical medium in
Matrimony? There is nothing left but to admit that it is
truer and more probable to assume that those Sacra-
ments which do not imprint a character on the soul
produce their effects morally, not physically, when the
obstacle is removed.^" But if this be admitted in some
cases, why not in all ?

c) The attitude of St. Thomas is in dispute.
Perhaps the Angel of the Schools, like St.
Bonaventure,^^ favored neither opinion. It is
safe to assume, however, that he regarded the
Sacraments as moral, without denying that they
are also physical, causes of grace. There is no
contradiction in ascribing to the Sacraments such
a twofold causality. If St. Thomas believed in
the latter theory, he did not exclude the former,
as is evidenced by his declaration that ''The Sac-
raments of the Church derive their power espe-
cially from Christ's passion, the virtue of which
is in a manner united to us by our receiving the
Sacraments." ^^ If the passion of our Lord is

30 Cfr. Gonct, De Sacrain., disp. p. i, qu. 4: " Nescio tamcn, quae

3, art. 3, §2, n. 81: " Verior et sit vcrior."

probabilior est solutio ac doctrina 32 Suynma TIieoL, 3a, qu. 62, art.

alioyum Thomisiarum asserentiiim, $: "Sacramento Ecclesiac spcciali-

sacramenta quae non imf^rimunt tcr habcnt virtutcm ex passione

charactcrcm rcccdcnte ficlione [i. c. Christi, cuius virtus nobis quodam-

remoto obice] non causare physice, modo copulatur per susceptioncm

sed moralitcr." sacramcntorum."

81 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i,

158 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

morally efficacious, the same must be true of its
concrete embodiment and application through the
sacramental sign.^^ In his earlier days St.
Thomas held that the sacramental sign, on account
of its inability to produce the substance of sancti-
fying grace, — this being reserved to the Divine
Omnipotence, — effects in the soul only a kind of
spiritual disposition (dispositio spiritiialis) or
ornament (ornatus animae) which, as res and sa-
cramcntiim, is on a level with the sacramental
character, and imperatively demands the infusion
of sanctifying grace.^^ Whether he conceived
this dispositio or ornatus as produced by physical
or moral means, is open to debate. However, the
fact that the Angelic Doctor does not mention
this theory in the Smnma Theologica ^^ seems to
prove that he attributed no particular importance
to it. At any rate, since its rejection by Cardinal
Cajetan, the theory has disappeared from the
writings of the Thomists, who vigorously de-
fend the physical causality of the Sacraments.
The only reason why we mention it at all is that
it has been recently revived by Cardinal Billot,^®
who holds that the Sacraments produce sanctify-

33 This argument is ably developed Paludanus, Sylvester of Ferrara,

by Tepe, Instit. TheoL, Vol. IV, pp. etc.

47 sq. 35 It recurs, however, in his

Zi Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. i, Quacstiones Disp., Dc Potentia.

qu. 1, art. 4. He was followed in SO De Ecclesiae Sacramentis, Vol.

this opinion by nearly all pre-Tri- I, 4th ed., pp. 68 sqq., Rome 1907,
dentine theologians, — Capreolus,

MANNER OF OPERATION 159

ing grace neither morally nor physically, but effi-
cient er dispositive, i. e., by creating in the soul a
certain spiritual disposition, of the same kind as
that which the ancients called ornatus. If this
were true, the efficacy of the sacramental rite
would be indirect, — an assumption which unduly
depreciates the Sacraments. To this should be
added the following consideration: The spirit-
ual disposition produced in the soul by the Sac-
raments, according to Billot, is either a physical
quality, or it is not. If it is, there is no essential
distinction between those Sacraments that im-
print a character and those that do not. If the
dispositio spiritualis is not a physical quality of
the soul, it can hardly be anything more than a
moral claim to grace (titidus gratiae), and then
the efficacy of the Sacraments is purely moral.

Scheeben's curious theory that the Sacraments
produce their effects by a sort of "hyper-physical"
efficacy, is too obscure to obtain general accept-
ance.^^

Readings: — *C. von Schiizler, Die Lehrc von der Wirksamkeit
dcr Sakramente ex opere operato, Munich i860. — Bucceroni, Coni-
mentarius de Sacramentorum Caiisalitate, Paris 1889. — G. Rein-
hold, Die Strcitfrage iiber die physisclie oder moralische Wirk-
samkeit der Sakramente, Vienna 1899. — *Heinrich-Gutberlet, Dog-
matische Theologie, Vol. IV, §485-491, Mainz 1901. — Gihr, Die

87 On the ornatus animac cfr. M. igoi. For a defence of Billot's

Buchberger, Die Wirkungen des teaching see G. Van Noort, De Sa-

Bussakramcntes nach der Lchre dcs cramentis, Vol. I, 2nd cd., pp. 48

hi. Thomas, pp. 150 sqq., Freiburg sqq., Amsterdam 1910.

i6o THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

hi Sakramente dcr kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 6^ sqq., Frei-
burg 1902. — Pourrat, La Theologie Sacramentaire, pp. 85-184,
Paris 1910 (English tr., Theology of the Sacraments, pp. 93-196,
St. Louis 1914). — Mohler, SymhoUk, § 28 sqq., nth ed.. Mainz
1890 (English tr. by J. B. Robertson, sth ed., pp. 202 sqq., London
1906). — J. B. Rohm, Konfessionelle Lehrgegensdtse, Vol. Ill, pp.
539 sqq., Hildesheim 1888.

CHAPTER IV

THE MINISTER OF A SACRAMENT

The primary or principal minister (minister
primariiis sive principalis) of the Sacraments
is our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ/ Those
whom He employs as His representatives are
called secondary or instrumental ministers (mini-
stri secundarii sive instrument ales) .

1 V. supra, pp. 146 sqq.

161

SECTION I

THE CONDITIONS OF VALID ADMINISTRATION

The conditions of the valid administration of
a Sacrament depend partly on the qualification of
the minister and partly on his interior disposition.
The minister need not be in the state of grace,
nor need he have the faith (negative disposi-
tion), but he must have the right intention (pos-
itive disposition).

ARTICLE I

THE PERSON OF THE MINISTER

The combination of matter and form into a sacramental
sign (confectio) , and its application to the individual re-
cipient (administratio) , — two factors which, with the
sole exception of the Holy Eucharist, invariably coincide,
— requires a minister who has the full command of
reason. Hence lunatics, children, and others who have
not the full use of reason are incapable of administering
a Sacrament.^

Besides this there are several other requisites of valid
administration.

2 Decretum pro Armenis: " Omnia tentione faciendi quod facit Ecclesia:
sacramenta tribiis perficiuntur, znde- quorum si aliqxiod desit, non per-
licet rebus tamquam materia, verbis ficitur sacramentum." (Denzinger-
tamquam forma et persona ministri Eannwart, n. 695).
confercntis sacramentum cum in-

162

PERSON OF THE MINISTER 163

I. The Minister of a Sacrament Must be
IN THE Wayfaring State. — This condition ex-
cludes the angels and the departed. Christ con-
ferred His powers upon living men,^ and the
Apostles in their turn chose living men for their
successors."* "It is those who inhabit the earth,
and walk upon it," says St. Chrysostom, "who are
called to administer heavenly things, and who
have received a power which God has granted
neither to the angels nor to the archangels." ^
This truth, so clearly inculcated by Sacred Scrip-
ture and Tradition, is entirely consonant with
reason ; for as the Sacraments are means of grace
intended for the living, it is obvious that they
must be administered by living agents.

True, certain Saints (e. g. St. Stanislaus Kostka) are
said to have received Holy Communion through the
medium of angels. But Holy Communion is, so to
speak, a permanent Sacrament, already consummated,
and if some privileged Saint received it at the hands of
an angel, this does not argue that the consecration of
the species took place through the same agency. Fol-
lowing the lead of St. Augustine,*' Aquinas teaches:
" As God did not bind His power to the Sacraments, so
as to be unable to bestow the sacramental effect without
conferring the Sacrament ; so neither did He bind His
power to the ministers of the Church, so as to be unable
to give angels power to administer the Sacraments." ''

3 Cfr. Matth. XXVIII, 19; John 5 D<7 Saccrdotio, III, 5-
XX, 22; Luke XXII, 19. C Contra Ep. Parmen., II, 15.

4 Cfr. I Cor. IV, i sqq. ; Eph. IV, T Suinina Thcol., 3a, qu. 64, art.
8 sqq. 7: " Sicut Dcxts virtutem sitam non

i64 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

It is well, however, to exercise great caution in regard
to such alleged happenings. Thus the statement of Ni-
cephorus Callistus,^ that St. Amphilochius was conse-
crated by an angel, and that his fellow-bishops confirmed
the act as valid, is open to serious objections. Such ex-
traordinary reports must be established by incontroverti-
ble evidence, lest the certainty of the sacramental econ-
omy be exposed to grave danger. Luther exceeded all
bounds by asserting that the devil can validly baptize,
consecrate, and absolve," — a possibility which had been
denied by St. Thomas Aquinas and Thomas of Argen-
tina.^°

2. The Minister of a Sacrament Must be
A Duly Qualified Person. — The Tridentine
Council teaches against Luther: *Tf anyone
saith that all Christians have power to administer
the word and all the Sacraments, let him be
anathema." ^^ It follows that, in order to be able
to administer at least some of the Sacraments, a
person must be specially qualified. Such quali-
fication is imparted by the Sacrament of Holy
Orders. The only two exceptions to this rule are
Baptism and Matrimony.

The secondary minister in the administration of a Sac-
rament acts '' in persona Christi," ^^ as Christ's per-

alligavit sacramentis, quin possit sine 10 Comment in Sent., IV, dist.

sacramentis effectum sacramentoruni 6, qu. i, art. i.

conferre, ita etiam virtuteni suam ii Sess. VII, can. lo: " Si quis

non alligavit Ecclcsiae ministris, dixcrit, Christianas onines in verba

quin etiam angelis possit virtuteni et omnibus sacramentis administran-

tribuere ministrandi sacramenta." dis habere potestatem, anathema

8 Hist. Eccles., XI, 20. sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 853).

9 Von der Winkelmesse und 12 Cfr. 2 Cor. II. 10.
Pfaffenweihe, 1533.

PERSON OF THE MINISTER 165

sonal representative. It stands to reason that not every
man is such a special representative of Christ, but only
he who has been expressly commissioned. In civil life an
ordinary citizen cannot perform official acts unless he is
duly authorized. The exception in favor of Baptism and
Matrimony is apparent rather than real. The parties
to a marriage, by entering into the matrimonial contract,
do not become either civil officials or public ministers of
Christ ; they may be said to represent the person of Christ
only in so far as they mutually administer the Sacra-
ment to each other, but not in the full sense in which
the term minister is used in regard to the other Sacra-
ments.

The question is even simpler in respect of Baptism. Its
solemn administration requires a bishop, priest or deacon ;
only in cases of urgent necessity can this Sacrament
be conferred by a lay person, acting not as a public of-
ficial of the Church, but merely as a private helper in
need. According to Suarez ^^ this is true even of priests
when they baptize without the prescribed ceremonies in
urgent cases. Luther claimed that every Christian is a
priest, because St. Peter says : " You are a chosen gen-
eration, a kingly priesthood." " But i Pet. II, 9 by no
means proves this contention. The priesthood in which
all the faithful share is purely metaphorical, as appears
from I Pet. II, 5 : "Be you also ... a holy priesthood,
to ofifer up spiritual sacrifices." ^^ If the term kparevim
(priesthood) were to be strictly interpreted in this
passage, we should also have to take /Jacn'Aetov (kingly)
in its literal sense, which is manifestly impossible,

13 Dc Sacram., disp. i6, sect. 4. 15 i Pet. II, 5: ". . . sacerdo-

14 I Pet. II, 9: " Vos autem tium sancttim (UpArevfia dyiov)!
genus electum, regale sacerdotium offerre spirituales liostias."
(^aaiXcioi' iepdrevixa)-"

1(6 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

3. No One Can Administer a Sacrament
TO Himself. — The minister of a Sacrament and
its recipient must be separate persons.

This requirement is based ( i ) on the nature of things,
because in most instances it is impossible for the
minister to apply the matter and form of a Sacrament
to himself; (2) on the divine economy of grace, it hav-
ing pleased God to make men dependent on one an-
other ; and (3) on Christ's positive command to His Apos-
tles and their successors, to dispense the means of grace
to others. The only exception is the Holy Eucharist,
which can be administered and received by the same indi-
vidual.

ARTICLE 2

REQUISITES OF VALID ADMINISTRATION

As the sacramental sign is the inanimate medium of
grace,^® so the minister is its animate instrument in the
hands of Christ. Both together constitute the instru-
mentum adaequatum gratiae. The human minister, be-
ing a person, not only exercises an instrumental activity
of his own, but is possessed of certain moral qualities.
The question arises whether one who is in the state of
mortal sin, or has lost the true faith, can validly admin-
ister the Sacraments. We will set forth the Catholic
teaching on these points in two theses.

Thesis I: The validity of a Sacrament does not
depend on the personal worthiness of the minister.

This proposition embodies an article of faith.
Proof. The early Donatists asserted that a

IG V. Ch. Ill, sul'ra.

REQUISITES OF VALIDITY 167

minister, in order to confer a Sacrament validly,
must be in the state of sanctifying grace. This
teaching was revived in the Middle Ages by the
W^aldenses, the Fraticelli, the Albigenses, the
Wiclifites, and the Hussites. Innocent III de-
manded of the Waldenses a profession of faith in
which this error was expressly repudiated.^'^
The Council of Constance (A. D. 1418) con-
demned Wiclif's assertion that a bishop or priest
who is in the state of mortal sin can neither bap-
tize nor consecrate nor confer holy Orders.^ ^
Lastly, the Council of Trent defined: 'Tf any-
one saith that a minister, being in mortal sin, —
if he observe all the essentials which belong to the
effecting or conferring of a Sacrament, — neither
effects nor confers the Sacrament, let him be ana-
thema." ^'

Our thesis cannot be proved from Sacred
Scripture, but rests wholly on Tradition and rea-
son.

a) The Church has always regarded the admin-
istration of a Sacrament in the state of mortal sin
as a sacrilege, and insists on the personal sanc-

17 Prof ess. Fidei Waldensibtts ab 10 Sess. VII, can. 12: "Si quis
Innocentio III. Praescripta: " Sa- dixerit, ministrum in peccato mortali
craincnta, . . . licet a peccatorc sa- existentcm, modo omnia esscntialia
cerdote minislrentur, dum Ecclesia quae ad sacramentum conficicndum
cum recipit, in nulla rcprobamus." ant conferendum pertinent serva-
(Dcnzinger-Bannwart, n. 424). verit, nan conficere aul confcrre

18 " 5t episcopiis vcl saccrdos exi- sacramentum, anathema sit." (Den-
stat in peccato mortali, non ordinal, zinger-Bannwart, n. 855).

non consccraU, non baptizat." (Dcn-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 584).

i68 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

tity of her priesthood; ^^ but she has never condi-
tioned the vahdity of a Sacrament on the moral
worthiness of the minister. Her early teaching
on the subject is clearly apparent from the writ-
ings of St. Optatus of Mileve and St. Augustine
against the Donatists.

Aside from certain peculiar views of Tertullian -^ and
Origen,-^ the question regarding the moral disposition of
the minister arose later than that regarding his orthodoxy,
which was hotly debated in the controversy that raged
about the question of the rebaptizing of those who had
been baptized by heretics.-^ When bishops and priests be-
gan to apostatize in time of persecution, conscientious
Catholics quite naturally asked themselves : " Can such un-
worthy men validly baptize or confer Holy Orders ? " It
was this question, in fact, which may be said to have given
rise to the Donatist schism. In the year 311, Bishop Felix
of Aptunga, who was (falsely) accused of having deliv-
ered the sacred books of the Christians to their enemies,
consecrated a certain archdeacon named Csecilian to the
episcopal see of Carthage. A party of zealots in the last-
mentioned city denounced this act as invalid and set up
another bishop in the person of one Majorinus, who was
soon after succeeded by Donatus the Great. Optatus,
bishop of Mileve, in his work De Schismate Donatistarnm
(written about 370), triumphantly demonstrated that the
validity of a Sacrament does not depend on the disposi-
tion of the minister. It remained, however, for St. Au-
gustine to break the backbone of the new heresy. Start-
ing from the favorite Donatist distinction between " pub-

20 F. infra, pp. i88 sq. 22 /m Matth., t. XH, 14.

21 De Pudic, c. 21. 23 V. infra. Thesis II.

REQUISITES OF VALIDITY 169

lie " and " private " sinners, he argued as follows : The
Sacrament of Baptism is administered either by a private
or a public sinner. If by a private sinner, Baptism among
the Donatists themselves is uncertain, since they, too, have
private sinners among their number. If by a public
sinner, the case stands no better, since all guilty of mortal
sin, whether public or private, are on a par before God.
Consequently, the validity of a Sacrament can not depend
on the worthiness of the minister. In matter of fact, there
is no Baptism of Donatus or Rogatus, etc., but only the one
Baptism of Jesus Christ, which confers grace by reason
of its innate power, independently of human merit.^*

In the East, at about the same time, St. John Chrysos-
tom taught : " It may happen that the rulers of a na-
tion are bad and corrupt, and their subjects good and
pious, that the laity live moral lives while the priests
are guilty of iniquity. But if grace always required
worthy [ministers], there would be no Baptism, no body
of Christ [Eucharist], no sacrifice [of the Mass]. Now
God is wont to operate through unworthy men, and the
grace of Baptism is in no wise stained by the [sinful]
life of the priest." -^

Several Patristic writers exemplify this truth by strik-
ing metaphors. Thus St. Gregory of Nazianzus com-
pares a Sacrament to a signet ring and says that the
emperor's iron ring has the same power of making a

24 Cfr. St. Augustine, Contra erat, Christus baptizavit." — A list of

Crcscon., II, 21, 26: " Baptizant, St. Augustine's writings against the

quantum attinet ad visibile ministeri- Donatists can be found in Barden-

uni, ct honi ct mali, invisibiliter hewcr-Shahan, Patrology, pp. 484

aiitcm per eos ille bapticat, cuius sq. Several of the most important

est et visibile baptisma et invisibilis of them are translated into English

gratia." — Idem, Tract, in loa., V, in Dods, The Works of Aurelius

n. 18: " Si quos baptizavit ebriosus, Augustine, Vol. Ill, Edinburgh

quos baptizavit homicida, quos bap- 1872.

tizavit adulter, si baplismus Cluisti 25 Horn, in Ep. 1 ad Cor., 8, n. 1.

170 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

mark as a ring of gold ; -'^ and St. Augustine calls atten-
tion to the fact that the rays of the sun shine upon
filth without being contaminated by it.-^

The same ideas were again brought forward in the icon-
flict with the spiritualistic sects of the Middle Ages.

b) From the philosophical point of view the following
considerations are pertinent. As far as mere possibility
is concerned, there can be no doubt that Jesus Christ,
had He so willed, could have limited the power of confer-
ring His Sacraments to members of the true Church, and
made it dependent on the subjective disposition of the
minister. However, in His wisdom our Lord preferred
to tolerate innumerable sacrileges rather than limit too
narrowly the requisites of valid administration. By
making the Sacraments independent of the personal merit
or demerit of the minister, He safeguarded three im-
portant truths: (i) their objective efficacy, depending
in no wise on the moral character of the minister; (2)
His own priesthood, which cannot be tainted by His
representatives; and (3) the certainty to which the
faithful have a right in matters pertaining to eternal
salvation. K the validity, power, and effect of the Sac-
raments had been made to depend on the subjective
condition of the minister, the doctrine of their ob-
jective efficacy ex opcre operato would have been en-
dangered as well as the important truth that all human
ministers are but representatives of the one great High
Priest, the God-man Jesus Christ, and the faithful would
have had no certainty with regard to the valid reception
of Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Orders, etc. Such a
state of affairs would have produced insufferable qualms
of conscience and brought contempt and disregard upon

20 Or, de Bapt., 40, n. 26. 27 De Bapt. c. Donat., Ill, 10, 15.

REQUISITES OF VALIDITY 171

the divinely instituted means of grace.-® Nor would it be
possible, without this safeguard, to uphold the hierarchi-
cal order. To assure themselves that the Sacraments
were validly administered, the laity would pry into the
private life of the clergy, and there would arise a systan
of espionage which would necessarily entail denunciation,
calumny, slander, quarrels, and scandals. The admin-
istration of the Sacraments would thus be surrounded by
conditions which would make them a source of evil rather
than of blessing.

Thesis II: The validity of a Sacrament does not
depend on the orthodox belief of the minister.

This thesis is de fide in respect of Baptism.

Proof. It is the formal and solemn teaching
of the Tridentine Council that heretics bap-
tize validly if they observe the prescribed form
and have the intention of doing what the Church
does. *Tf anyone saith that the Baptism which
is given by heretics in the name of the Father and
of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, with the in-
tention of doing what the Church doth, is not
true Baptism, let him be anathema." ^^ A pari,
and because of the established practice of the
Church, theologians regard it as fidei proximimi

28 Cfr. St. Bonaventure, Brevil., " Si quis dixerit, baptismum qui

VI, 5: "Si sacranicnta dispensari etiam datur ah haereticis in nomine

solum possent a bonis, nullus esset Patris ct Filii et Spiritus Sancti cum

certus de susceptione sacramcnti, intcntione facicndi quod facit Ec-

et sic oporteret semper ilerari ct clcsia, non esse verum baptismum,

malitia uiiius praeiudicarct alicnae anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-

saluti." wart, n. 860).

20 Sess. Vn, De Bapt., can. 4:

172 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

that heretics can validly administer all the other
Sacraments, with the sole exception of Penance,^*^
which cannot, barring cases of urgent necessity, jj
be validly conferred by heretical and schismatic
priests; — not on account of their lack of ortho-
doxy, but because they have no ecclesiastical juris-
diction.

a) With the outbreak of schisms and heresies
there naturally arose doubts concerning the valid-
ity of Baptism when administered by heretics or,
generally, by those outside the fold. As early as
256, Pope Stephen I decided against the practice
of rebaptizing heretics, which had been intro-
duced by St. Cyprian and his fellow-bishops in
Africa.^^

Up to the third century it was regarded as an Apostolic
rule to recognize Baptism conferred by heretics as
valid. About 220, Agrippinus, bishop of Carthage, be-
gan to rebaptize converted heretics. The new practice
received the sanction of two councils (A. D. 255 and
256), presided over by St. Cyprian.^- When Pope
Stephen had decided against it, Cyprian wrote to Firmil-
ian, bishop of Csesarea, to ascertain the views of the
churches of Asia Minor, These, at a council held in
Iconium, sanctioned the African practice, but their

30 Maldonatus and Morinus 32 Cfr. St. Cyprian, Ep., yz, n.
mistakenly except also Confirmation 13 (ed. H'artel, II, 787) : " Proinde
and Holy Orders. friistra quidam, qui ratione vincun-

31 " Si qui ergo a qiiacumque iur, consttctudinem nobis opponunt,
haeresi vetiient ad vos, nihil innove- quasi consuetudo maior sit veritate
tur nisi quod traditum est, ut manus aut non id sit in spiritualibus se-
illis imponatur in poenitcntiam," quendum, quod in melius fuerit a S.
(Deazinger-Bannwart, n. 46). Spiritu revelaturn."

REQUISITES OF VALIDITY 173

decision was annulled by the Pope, in 253, under
threat of excommunication. St. Dionysius the Great of
Alexandria prevented a schism,^^ but Firmilian stuck to
his opinion, and in reply to St. Cyprian's inquiry said:
" We join custom to truth and oppose to the custom
of Rome that of the truth." 2* The very fact that both
Cyprian and Firmilian confessedly acted in opposition to
an ancient tradition shows that the Roman practice was
of Apostolic origin. " This most wholesome custom,"
says St. Augustine, " according to the Blessed Cyprian,
began to be what is called amended by his predecessor
Agrippinus, but ... we ought to believe that it rather
began to be corrupted than to receive correction at the
hands of Agrippinus." ^^ And Vincent of Lerins says :
" The antiquity was retained, the novelty was ex-
ploded." ^® The doubts that arose on various later occa-
sions had nothing to do with the principle itself, but merely
concerned its practical application. Often it was not easy
to determine whether this or that particular sect used the
proper formula in baptizing. Thus St. Basil (d. 379)
was in doubt about the Encratites and the Pepuzians.
St. Augustine, in his controversy with the Donatists, con-
fidently appealed to tradition. He drew a clearer dis-
tinction between character and grace than St. Cyprian
had done, and declared that, while a Sacrament may
be validly administered by heretical ministers, yet its
effects might not be visible among their sects.^^

33 Cfr. Eusebius, Hist. Ecclcs., tudincm per Agrippinum praedeces-
VII, 2. sorem suum dicit S. Cyprianus quasi

34 Inter Ep. Cypr., 75, n. 19 (ed. coepisse corrigi, sed . . . vcrius
Hartel, II, 822): " Ceterum nos creditur per Agrippinum corrumpi
veritati ct consuetudincm iungimtis coepisse, non corrigi."

et consuetudini Romanorutn coiisue- sn Commonit., I, 6: " Retenta est

tudinem sed veritatis opponimus." scil. aniiqnitas, cxplosa novitas."

sr, De Bapt. c. Donat., II, 7, 11: 37 Cfr. St. Augustine, Contra

" Hanc ergo saluberrimam consue- Donat., VI, i : " Non ob aliud

174 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

b) The theological reason for the validity of
Baptism when conferred by a heretical minister,
is to be sought in the maxim so constantly urged
by St. Augustine : "It is Christ who baptizes." ^^
Let it not be objected that no one can give what
he does not himself possess {nemo dat quod non
habet) ; for he who confers Baptism, whether he
be himself baptized or unbaptized, orthodox or
heretical, pure or unclean, does not confer his
own Baptism but the Baptism of Christ.^^

What we have said of Baptism applies also to the re-
maining Sacraments, especially to Confirmation and Holy
Orders. The practice of the Church with regard to
them is the same and based on the same reasons. Only
the Sacrament of Penance, is, as a rule, considered in-
valid if administered in heretical sects, even such as have
validly ordained bishops and priests ; not, however, as we
have already remarked, because these ministers have
not the power to absolve, but because, except in cases of
urgent necessity, they lack ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Even the most orthodox Catholic confessor cannot give
absolution if he lacks jurisdiction and is generally known

visum est quibusdam, ctiam egregiis
viris, antistitibus Christi, inter quos
praecipue b. Cyprianus eminebat,
non esse posse apud haereticos vel
schisniaticos baptismum Christi, ,nisi
quia non distingucbatur sacramen-
tum ab effectu vel usu sacramenti;
et quia cius effectus atque usus in
liberaiione a peccatis et cordis recti-
tiidine apud haereticos non invenie-
batur, ipsum quoque sacramentum
non illic esse putabatur." For fur-
ther information we refer the stu-
dent to Part II of this volume, on

Baptism. The historical aspects of
the controversy are well treated by
J. Ernst, Die Ketzertaufangelegcn-
heit in dcr altchristlichen Kirche
nach Cyprian, Mainz 1901; Idem,
Papst Stephan I. und der Ketcer-
taiifstreit, Mainz 1905. See also B.
Poschmann, Die Sichtbarkeit der
Kirche nach der Lehre des hi.
Cyprian, pp. 49 sqq., 114, Pader-
born 1908.

38 " Christus est qui baptisat."

39 Cfr. I Cor. I, 13.

THE RIGHT INTENTION 175

to lack it Where good faith and a titiilus coloratiis may
be presumed, the Church suppHes the defect. For this
reason confession among the schismatic Greeks or Rus-
sians cannot be rejected as invalid. Sacramenta propter
homines, — the Sacraments have been instituted for the
sake of men, and we may safely assume that the Church,
desiring to aid those who are blamelessly in error, supplies
the lack of jurisdiction in schismatical ministers.^

ARTICLE 3

NECESSITY OF A RIGHT INTENTION

I. Preliminary Remarks. — Intention (in-
tentio) may be defined as an act of the will by
which that faculty efficaciously desires to reach
an end by employing the necessary means/^ In-
tention is not synonymous with attention, for man
can act with a purpose even when his mind is
distracted.

a) It is customary to distinguish various kinds of in-
tention by which an act may be prompted.

There is, first, the actual intention, operating with the
full advertence of the intellect. When a minister wishes
here and now to confer, e. g., the Sacrament of Baptism,
he has an actual intention.

Secondly, there is the virtual intention. Its force is
iDorrowed from a previous volition, which is accounted
as continuing in some result produced by it. Thus, if a

40 Cfr. Billot, De Sacramentis Ec- Thcol., la 2ae, qu. 12. art. i, ad 3:
clcsiae. Vol. I, 4th ed., p. 158, Rome " Intentio nominat actum voluntatis
1907. pracsul'positd ordinationc rationis

41 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa ordinantis aliquid in fiiiciii,'

176 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

minister begins with an actual intention, but is distracted
while administering the Sacrament, he has a virtual in-
tention.

Thirdly, an habitual intention is one that once actually
existed, but of the present continuance of which there is
no positive trace. The most that can be said of it is that
it has never been retracted. A priest subject to somnam-
bulism, who would administer Baptism in his sleep, might
be said to act with an habitual intention.

Fourthly, an interpretative intention is an intention that
would be conceived if one thought of it, but which for
want of thinking of it, is not elicited. It is simply the
purpose which it is assumed a man would have had in a
given contingency, had he given thought to the matter.
There has been and is no actual movement of the will.^"

An intention of some sort is necessary in the min-
ister for the valid administration of a Sacrament. It need
not be actual. Distractions cannot always be avoided.
A virtual intention is sufiicient. Not so, however, an
habitual or interpretative intention, which is really not in
existence while the action is performed, and consequently
can have no effect upon it.

b) With regard to quality, an intention may be either
direct or reflex, according as the minister realizes the full
import of his action or performs it without being fully
conscious of its character and effects. Thus, a priest
who, in baptizing an infant, explicity desires to cleanse
the soul from original sin and to bestow sanctifying
grace, acts with a reflex intention. One who sim-
ply performs all that is prescribed by the ritual has a
direct intention.

Theologians also distinguish an indirect intention, by

42 Cfr. J. F. Delany in the Catho- Thos. Slater, Moral Theology, Vol.
lie Encyclopedia, Vol. VIII, p. 69; II, p. 28.

THE RIGHT INTENTION 177

virtue o£ which a man intends an action not in itself but
in its cause (vohintariunt in causa sive indirectum) , as
when one under the influence of Hquor does something
which he had made up his mind to do when sober. Such
an indirect intention is not sufficient in the minister of
a Sacrament ; if it were, Baptism could be administered, or
the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass celebrated, by a priest
in the state of intoxication. A direct intention suffices for
the valid administration of the Sacrament.

A species of the direct intention is the so-called intentio
mere externa. It may be defined as the purpose of per-
forming the external rite of a Sacrament while internally
withholding the intention to administer the same. The
term was invented by Ambrosius Catharinus in order to
safeguard the objectivity of the Sacraments. Catharinus,
and some other theologians who followed his lead,
thought that such an intention of performing the ex-
ternal rite, even if coupled with an internal refusal to
do what the Church does, would suffice for the validity of
a Sacrament. To-day this opinion has scarcely any ad-
herents. The common doctrine now is that a real in-
ternal intention, via.: the will to accomplish what Christ
instituted the Sacraments to effect, in other words, truly
to baptize, absolve, etc., is required.*^

2. Dogmatic Theses Concerning the In-
tention OF the Minister. — To administer a
Sacrament validly, the minister must have a real
intention to do what the Church does (Thesis
I). For this the mere external intention postu-
lated by Catharinus is not sufiicient (Thesis II).

43 Delany, /. c.

178 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Thesis I: To administer a Sacrament validly, the
minister must have the intention at least to do what
the Church does.

This proposition embodies an article of faith.

Proof. The Decretum pro Armenis defines
that the intention to do what the Church does is
a necessary requisite for the vahd administration
of a Sacrament,"*^ The Tridentine Council sol-
emnly declares: "If anyone saith that in min-
isters, when they efifect and confer the Sacra-
ments, there is not required the intention at least
of doing what the Church does, let him be ana-
thema." '*^ To understand the full significance of
this declaration it should be noted that the Coun-
cil does not say, "what the Church intends," but
merely, "what the Church does." Consequently,
all that is necessary for the valid administration
of the Sacraments is the direct intention, i. e. the
purpose of performing the rite as is usual among
Catholics. To demand in addition a reflex in-
tention, either for the administration of the Sac-
rament as such, or for the production of the sac-
ramental character and the infusion of grace,
would be to make the validity of the Sacrament
depend upon the orthodoxy of the minister, — an
assumption which we have shown to be false.*^

44 V, supra, p. 162, n. 2. iem faciendi quod facit Ecclesia,

45 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, can. anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-
11: "Si qtiis dixerit, in ministris, wart, n. 854).

diim sacramenta conficiunt et con- 46 V, supra. Art. 2, Thesis II.

ferunt, non requiri intentionem sal-

THE RIGHT INTENTION 179

a) The Apostle says: "So let men account
us as ministers of Christ." ^^ It follows from
this that the minister of a Sacrament, being a
servant or minister of Christ, must have the
intention of exercising the powers delegated
to him by the Master. Now, since the Church
acts in the name of her Divine Founder, one
who has not the intention of doing at least
what the Church does, does not conduct himself
as a minister of Christ, nor does he exercise the
powers conferred by Him, Consequently, with-
out the intention of doing what the Church does
there can be no Sacrament.

This Biblical argument can be supported by philosophi-
cal considerations. We know from John XX, 23, that
by the power of absolving which, in the Sacrament of
Penance, he exercises in the name of Christ, a con-
fessor may either forgive or retain sins. Hence he
must, after hearing the penitent, make up his mind either
to absolve him or to send him off without absolution.
He can do neither the one nor the other without having
some kind of an intention.

Matrimony is not only a Sacrament, but it is also a con-
tract requiring the mutual consent of both parties. There
can be no true consent without an intention to get married.

A priest who, in saying Mass, would refuse to subject
himself to the will of Christ, in whose name he speaks
and acts, would not have the right intention, and conse-
quently would not act as a minister of Christ, and the

47 I Cor. IV, i: "Sic nos existimct homo ut ministros Christi."
(Cfr. the Westminster Version).

i8o THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

words of consecration pronounced by him would be void.
The same, mutatis mutandis, holds true of the other Sac-
raments.

b) The teaching of Tradition on this point has
undergone a lengthy process of clarification.

The most ancient testimony that has come down to us
is contained in a letter of Pope Cornelius (251-253) to
Fabius of Antioch. The Pontiff relates how the anti-pope
Novatian, who was the leader of the rigorist party, enticed
three ignorant provincial bishops to Rome, made them
dnmk, and compelled them to give him episcopal conse-
cration. The Pope distinctly says that this consecration
was invalid.*^ The reasons plainly are : first, because the
consecrating bishops were under the influence of liquor
and therefore irresponsible; second, because they acted
under compulsion (cogit).

There is an old legend that Bishop Alexander received
into the Christian fold certain companions of St. Atha-
nasius, whom the boy had baptized at play.^^ This is prob-
ably a mere fable, but if it were true, it would prove
that very liberal notions were current in the third cen-
tury regarding the intention of the minister of a Sacra-
ment, though we can not help wondering why Bishop
Alexander did not inquire whether the baptized boys had
the intention necessary to receive the Sacrament.

St. Augustine was evidently not quite clear on this mat-
ter, for he hesitated to declare that Baptism is invalid if
administered in jest or as a farce. ** But where [if] . . .
the whole thing were done as a farce, or a comedy, or a
jest, I should think that to know whether the Baptism thus

48 Cfr. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., dam et inani maninim imt>ositioiie

VI, 43: "Eos illc a quibusdam sui episcopatum sibi tradcre per vim

simillimis, quos ad id comparaverat, cogit."

inclusos hora decima, temttlentos et 49 Cfr. Rufinus, Hist. Eccles., I,

a crapula oppresses adumbrata qua- 14.

THE RIGHT INTENTION i8i

conferred should be approved, we ought to pray for
the declaration of God's judgment through the medium
of some revelation . . ." ^"

In the primitive Church there was a tendency to regard
every Sacrament administered according to the prescribed
rite as valid, without inquiring into the intention of the
minister, which was always presumed to be right. The
philosophic discussion concerning the necessity of the
right intention as a requisite of validity was reserved to
the Schoolmen. Hugh of St. Victor, so far as we know,
was the first theologian to insist on this point.^^ William
of Auxerre (d. 1223) invented the formula: " Intent io
faciendi quod facit Ecclesia." This was introduced into
the terminology of the schools and more adequately ex-
plained by Alexander of Hales, whose teaching was fol-
lowed by St. Bonaventure,^- Scotus, and the whole Fran-
ciscan school. St. Thomas, following his master Albert,
proves the necessity of a right intention on the part of
the minister from the proposition that every free instru-
mental cause must voluntarily accommodate itself to the
principal cause, — in this case Christ, the author and
chief administrator of the Sacraments. " There is
required on the part of the minister that intention by
which he subjects himself to the principal agent, i. e.
intends to do what Christ does and the Church." ""^ The
entire Thomist school faithfully adhered to this doctrine,
which was adopted even by Durandus and the Nominalists

BO Cfr. St. Augustine, De Bap- sacramentorum est opus hominis ut

tismo contra Donatistas, VII, 53, rationalis, ut ministri Christi, et ut

102: " Ubi autcm . . . toluin ludi- ministri salutis; liinc est quod tie-

ere et mimice et ioculariter agcre- cesse est quod fiat ex intentione."

tur, utrum approbandus esset bap- t>3 Cfr. Summa ThcoL, 3a, qu. 64,

tismus, qui sic darctur, divinum iudi- art. 8, ad i : " Requiritur eius in-

ciuin . . . implorandum censercm." tentio, qua se subiiciat principali

ai Summa, tr. 6, c. 4; De Sa- agcnti, ut scil. intcndat faccre quod

cram., II, 6, 13. facit Christus et Ecclesia."

S2 Brevil., VI, 5 : " Dispensatio

i82 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

and finally became the common teaching of Catholic theo-
logians. Innocent III, Martin V, and Eugene IV, by em-
ploying the Scholastic formula in official pronouncements,
prepared the way for its dogmatization by the Council of
Trent.^^

c) The theological argument for our thesis is
based on three facts : ( i ) the minister of a Sac-
rament acts as the representative of Christ; (2)
without some definite intention the administration
of a Sacrament would be an indifferent act; and
(3) the contrary proposition leads to absurd con-
sequences.

( 1 ) The minister of a Sacrament, as we have repeatedly
pointed out, acts not in his own name but in the name of
Christ and as His representative. To do this he must
have the intention of doing one thing in preference to an-
other, viz.: what Christ wishes him to do. As the will of
the Church in the administration of the Sacraments neces-
sarily coincides with that of her Divine Founder, it suf-
fices to have the intention of doing what the Church does.

(2) The confectio of a Sacrament, i. e. the combina-
tion of matter and form into the sacramental sign, is not
necessarily of itself a sacramental act, but indifferent
and ambiguous, inasmuch as the minister, being a free
agent, may act with any one of a number of different
purposes, e. g., to practice, to play a joke, to make a
mockery of religious ceremonies, etc. It depends entirely
on his free will whether what he does is intended as a

64 Cfr. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, pp. 173 sqq., Frei-
burg 1893.

THE RIGHT INTENTION 183

sacramental rite or not. Hence the necessity of a proper
intention.

(3) The contrary teaching of Luther entails utterly ab-
surd consequences. If no intention were required in
the administration of the Sacraments, a mother would
baptize her baby by bathing it in a tub and invoking the
name of the Trinity ; a priest reading the words of con-
secration from the Bible would nolens volens consecrate
a loaf of bread accidentally lying near him, and so forth.

Thesis II : A merely external intention in the sense
of Catharinus is not sufficient for the validity of a
Sacrament.

This proposition may be technically qualified
as communis.

Proof. Catharinus teaches that all that is
required for the validity of a Sacrament on the
minister's part is that he have the intention of
performing the external rite, even though he
withhold interior assent. "^^ This teaching seems
to have been forecast by Aureolus (d. 1322) and
Sylvester Prierias (d. 1523), but did not come
prominently forward until the seventeenth cen-
tury, when it was espoused by a number of French
and Belgian theologians, notably Contenson,
Farvacques, Duhamel, Juenin, Serry, and
Drouin.

In the nineteenth century this theory was sporadically
defended by L. Haas, Glossncr, and Oswald. The last-
mentioned writer retracted his earlier teaching in the

55 V, supra, p. 177.

i84 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

fifth edition of his treatise on the Sacraments, pubHshed
in 1894. His ablest opponents were Morgott ^° and
Franzehn.^''

The question at issue may be briefly formulated thus :
Does a minister who has the intention of performing the
external rite, but withholds his interior assent from
the mind of the Church, validly confer a Sacrament?
Catharinus and his followers answer this question af-
firmatively.

a) Though their opinion has never been di-
rectly and formally condemned, it runs counter
to a number of conciliary and papal decisions.

Innocent III demanded of the Waldenses that they sub-
scribe to a profession of faith containing these words in
regard to the Holy Mass : " For which celebration
three things are necessary, as we believe, namely,
a certain person, i. e. the priest, . . . those solemn words
[of institution], . . . and the honest intention of the one
who pronounces them." ^® Can he who interiorly repudi-
ates what he externally does, be said to have an " honest
intention " ? Note, too, that the Pope mentions the " fide-
lis intentio " as something independent of and separable
from the act of uttering the words of consecration. This
last-mentioned point is brought out more clearly in the
following question, addressed to certain suspected Wic-
lifites and Hussites by command of Martin V : " Does
he believe that a bad priest, employing the proper matter
and form, and having the intention of doing what the

56 Fr. Morgott, Der Spender der credimus, necessaria, sell, certa per-
hi. Sakramente nach der Lehre des sona, i. e. presbyter . . . et ilia
hi. Thomas, pp. 132 sqq., Freiburg solemnia verba [instilutionis'] . . ,
1886. et fidelis intentio proferentis."

57 De Sacramentis, thes. 17. (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 424).

58 " Ad quod ofHeium tria sunt, ut

THE RIGHT INTENTION 185

Church does, truly consecrates, truly absolves, truly bap-
tizes, truly confers the other Sacraments ?" ^^ He who
employs the proper matter and form, manifestly has the
external intention postulated by Catharinus and means to
perform the external rite in the prescribed way. But this
is not sufficient, or else the Pope would not add : " and
having the intention of doing what the Church does."
Eugene IV in his famous Decretum pro Armenis (1439),
besides the putting together of matter and form (in which
the intentio mere externa of Catharinus is sufficiently
guaranteed), expressly demands the intentio faciendi quod
facit Ecclesia as a distinct conditio sine qua non of
validity. Now this intention, in addition to the external
performance of the sacramental rite, coincides with the
internal intention which we defend. It is evidently this
interior intention that the Council of Trent means when
it commands the minister of a Sacrament to do what
the Church does.*''* A minister who would carefully
observe the prescribed rite, yet withhold interior as-
sent to the mind of the Church, could have no other in-
tention than to play the hypocrite. The correctness of
this interpretation may be judged from the Council's
declaration as to the right intention of confessors:
". . . The penitent ought not so to confide in his own
personal faith as to think that — even though there be
... no intention on the part of the priest of acting seri-
ously and absolving truly — he is nevertheless . . . ab-
solved, . . . nor would he be otherwise than most care-
less of his own salvation who, knowing that a priest ab-
solved him in jest, should not carefully seek for another

50 ". . . utrum crcdat, quod malus verc absolvat, vcre baptizct, vera

sacerdos cum debita materia et conferat alia sacramcnta." (Den-

fornia et cum intentione faciendi zinger-Bannwart, n. 672).

quod facit Ecclesia, vere conficiat, CO V. supra. Thesis I.

i86 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

who would act in earnest." ^^ In this passage the Holy
Synod mentions two separate and distinct intentions:
that of " acting seriously " and that of " absolving truly."
These two intentions are either substantially identical or
they are separate and distinct. If they are identical, the
second phrase is merely an explanation of the first, and
the intention of acting seriously coincides with that of
absolving truly, which latter is evidently an interior in-
tention. If they are not identical, then the intention of
acting seriously (which is precisely Catharinus' intentio
mere externa), is not sufficient for valid absolution, be-
cause there is further required the intention of absolving
truly. In either case the merely external intention is in-
sufficient.

The opinion of Catharinus sustained a severe blow ^^
by the condemnation pronounced by Alexander VIII
(1690) against the proposition that "Baptism is valid
if conferred by a minister who observes the whole ex-
ternal rite and form of the Sacrament, but interiorly in
his heart says : I do not intend to do what the Church
does." ^^ This proposition was extracted from the writ-
ings of the Belgian theologian Farvacques, who was an
ardent champion of the intentio mere externa, and hence
it is perhaps not too much to say that Catharinus' theory
stands condemned.*'*

61 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, 62 V. Benedict XIV, De Synodo

cap. 6: "Non debet poenitens Dioeeesana, VII, 4, 8.

adeo sibi de sua ipsitis fide blandiri, 63 " Valet baptismus collatus a

ut etiainsi . . . sacerdoti animus ministro, qui omnem ritum externum

serio agcndi et vere absolvendi desit, formamque baptizandi observat, intus

putet tamen se . . . esse absolutum, vera in corde suo apud se resolvit:

. . . nee is esset nisi salutis suae Non intendo quod facit Ecclesia."

negligcntissimus, qui sacerdotem (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1318).

iocose absolventem cognosceret, et 64 Serry's evasive arguments on

non alium serio agenlem sediilo re- this subject are convincingly refuted

quireret." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. by Tepe, Instit. Theol., IV, 79 sqq.
902).

THE RIGHT INTENTION 187

b) The arguments alleged in favor of the
sufficiency of a merely external intention are in-
conclusive.

The laudable desire manifested by our opponents to
safeguard the objective efificacy of the Sacraments against
the wiles of unworthy men and to give the faithful as
great a certainty as possible of receiving the sacramental
graces, must not lead us to overlook the necessity of an
interior intention. Two elements, the one objective, the
other subjective, enter into the composition of every Sac-
rament : the external rite and the interior intention. No
Sacrament is complete without them. Nor is it safe to
extol the former to the prejudice of the latter. It is not
pertinent to compare the external rite to a fire ^^
which, laid to dry wood, at once kindles it, even when
there is no intention of arson on the part of him who
brings about the contact. On the other hand. Divine
Providence has seen fit to entrust the administration of
the Sacraments to human beings. We must therefore
be satisfied with such moral certitude as can generally be
had.««

65 As the followers of Catharinus 3rd ed., pp. 119 sqq. ; De Augu-
do. stinis, De Re Sacramentaria, I, 2nd

66 V. supra. Thesis I. Cfr. ed., pp. 235 sqq.
Pesch, Praelect, Dogmat., Voi. VI.

SECTION 2

THE REQUISITES OF WORTHY ADMINISTRATION

As this subject is fully dealt with in moral
and pastoral theology, we shall confine ourselves
to a few general remarks.

I. The State of Grace. — The minister of a
Sacrament represents Jesus Christ, who is all-
holy; he performs a sacred rite endowed with
sanctifying power, and therefore should be a man
of unblemished character. If he solemnly and
officially confers a Sacrament in the state of mor-
tal sin, he commits a sacrilege.^

Both the natural ^ and the positive divine law prescribe
that the priest of God be holy. In the Old Testa-
ment Yahweh admonished the sons of Aaron : " Be ye
holy, because I the Lord your God am holy," ^ and de-
manded of the Levites " that they shall be holy to their
God, and shall not profane his name : for they offer the
burnt offering of the Lord, and the bread of their God,
and therefore they shall be holy." ■* With how much
greater force does this apply to the Catholic priest, who
offers up, not calves and oxen, but the flesh and blood

1 Cfr. St. Thomas, Sumtna Theol., 5: "Est de iure naturali, ut homo
3a, qu. 64, art. 6. sancta sanctc pcrtractet."

2 Cfr. St. Thomas, Comment, in 3 Lev. XIX, 2.
Sent., IV, dist. 24, qu. i, art. 3, sol. 4 Lev. XXI, 6.

188

WORTHY ADMINISTRATION 189

of the God-man, and becomes a visible instrument of
sanctification in the hands of His invisible Master.
Justly does St. Gregory the Great declare : " It is nec-
essary that the hand be pure v^hich is engaged in cleaning
away filth, lest it spread contamination by contact." ^ A
priest who habitually lives in the state of mortal sin not
only provokes the divine vengeance, but, by his bad
example and the scandal he gives, helps the devil to ruin
those immortal souls which he has been commissioned to
save. The great defection in the West probably would
never have come about had the clergy of the sixteenth cen-
tury lived up to their high calling.

2. The Duty of Administering the Sacra-
ments.— He who possesses the power of validly
conferring the Sacraments, is in duty bound to
do so when he has charge of souls. This applies
to bishops, pastors and their representatives, and
religious superiors.^ Besides, a priest may be
bound by charity, under penalty of mortal sin, to
administer certain Sacraments in case of urgent
necessity.

3. The Duty of Refusing the Sacraments.
— Under certain conditions, which it is the busi-
ness of moral and pastoral theology to determine,
a priest is bound to refuse the Sacraments to un-
worthy applicants.'^ If there be danger of sacri-
lege, he must be ready to suffer martyrdom

6 £/>., I, 25: " Necesse est ut n Cf r. ConciHum Trident., Sess.

esse munda stiideat mantis, quae XXIII, De Reform., c. i.

diluere sordes curat, ne tacta quae- 7 Cfr. Matth. VII, 6; i Tim. V,

que deterius inquinet." 22,

190 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

rather than be unfaithful to his charge, for it is
never permitted to do evil, not even to save one's
life, and the desecration of a Sacrament is always
a great evil. Nor is it licit to escape danger of
death by simulation, either by omitting an essen-
tial part of a Sacrament where such omission
cannot be externally known and the people have a
right to the Sacrament, or by secretly harboring
the intention not to administer it; for Innocent
XI (1679) h^s solemnly condemned the proposi-
tion that ''urgent fear furnishes a just cause for
simulating the administration of the Sacra-
ments." ^ To omit an essential part or all of the
Sacrament, or substitute for it something else, is
permissible for just cause, provided there be no
contempt in so acting and no injury done to either
Sacrament or recipient.

8 " Urgens metus gravis est causa of this Section the student may

iusta sacrament orum administra- profitably consult Pesch, Praelect.

tionem simuiandi." (Denzinger^ Dogmat., Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 124

Bannvvart, n. 1179). On the subject sqq.

CHAPTER V

THE RECIPIENT OF A SACRAMENT

SECTION I
THE REQUISITES OF VALID RECEPTION

I. The Person of the Recipient. — The only
fit subject for the administration of the Sacra-
ments is man in the wayfaring state. The angels
cannot receive them because they are pure spirits ;
the brutes, because they are irrational ; dead bod-
ies, because they are no human persons ; departed
souls, because they are incapable of receiving any
rite, and because they have reached the status
termini.

However, not every living man is a fit subject
for all the Sacraments. The only Sacrament
which an unbaptized person is capable of receiving
is Baptism. Women are excluded from Holy
Orders, subdeacons and clerics in major orders
cannot receive the Sacrament of Matrimony,
persons in good health are debarred from Ex-
treme Unction, infants from Penance, Matri-
mony, and Extreme Unction. All these points

191

192 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

will be more fully explained in connection with the
several Sacraments.

2. Orthodoxy Not a Requisite for the
Valid Reception of the Sacraments. — ^With
the sole exception of Penance, which demands
certain supernatural acts (faith, contrition, etc.)
either as quasi-matter, or at least as a necessary
condition, the possession of the true faith is not
an indispensable requisite for the valid reception
of the Sacraments on the part of the subject.

a) The proofs of this assertion can be gathered from
the controversy that was waged about the question of
rebaptizing heretics. St. Augustine says in his famous
treatise on Baptism against the Donatists : " It is im-
material, when we are considering the question of the in-
tegrity and hoHness of the Sacrament, what the recipient
of the Sacrament beheves, and with what faith he is
imbued. It is of the very highest consequence as re-
gards the entrance into salvation, but it is wholly immate-
rial as regards the question of the Sacrament. For it is
quite possible that a man may be possessed of the genuine
Sacrament and a corrupted faith." ^ If the validity of the
Sacraments depended on the faith of the recipients. Prot-
estantism would be quite consistent in denying their ob-
jective efficacy and in basing justification solely on per-
sonal belief.

1 De Baptismo contra Donatistas, Fieri cnim potest, lit homo integrum
m, 14, 19: "Nee interest, quum habeat sacramentum et perversam
de sacramenti intcgritate et sancti- fidem." Cfr. the same author's Con-
tate tractatur, quid credat et quali tra Lit. Petit., II, 35, 82: "Bap-
fide imbutus sit ille, qui accipit sa- tismi puritas a puritate vet im-
cramentum. Interest quidein pluri- munditia conscientiae sive dantis sive
mum ad salutis viam, sed ad sacra- accipientis prorsus distincta est."
menti quaestionem nihil interest.

THE RECIPIENT 193

If a heretical belief cannot imperil the validity of the
Sacraments, neither can the presence or absence of some
particular subjective disposition. Hence it is true of re-
cipient and minister alike," that personal unworthiness
does not render a Sacrament invalid, though, of course,
it may rob it of its proper and ultimate effect, vis.:
the sanctification of the soul. Absence of the right dis-
position for the fruitful reception of a Sacrament is
called obex gratiae (obex =^ a bar or obstacle). Hence,
according to the Tridentine Council, the non posi-
tio obicis {^^remotio indispositionis) is an indispensable
condition of sacramental grace. " If anyone saith that
the Sacraments of the New Law ... do not confer that
grace on those who do not place an obstacle thereunto,
... let him be anathema." ^ Hence, if one places an
obstacle to sacramental grace,'* he receives the Sacra-
ment unworthily, but the Sacrament itself is not invalid ;
it is valid but lacking its proper form {validum et in-
forme).

b) Can a Sacrament received validly though unworth-
ily (i. e. if an obstacle prevents the infusion of divine
grace at the time of reception), obtain its effects after the
obstacle has been removed ? This is the famous question
regarding the " reviviscence " of the Sacraments {reinvi-
scentia sacrament onim), to which so much attention has
been given by theologians.^ In every case of that kind
there is a twofold possibility. Either the recipient is
unaware of the obstacle (mortal sin) existing in his soul,
and therefore receives the Sacrament in good faith {obex

2 y. supra. Thesis I, pp. i66 sqq. 4 The obex gratiae is also called

3 Cfr. Co)ic. Trident., Sess. VII, simitlata dispositio or fictio.

can. 6: "Si qtiis dixerit, sacra- 5 Cfr. the Catholic Encyclopedia,

menia Novae Lcgis . . . gratiam Vol. XIII, 304 b.
ipsam non ponentibiis obicem non
conferre, anathema sit,"

194 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

negativus sive inciilpabilis) ; or the obstacle is known and
voluntary, and then the Sacrament is received sacrileg-
iously (obex positivus sive culpahilis). The first-men-
tioned possibility has already been considered in a previous
part of this treatise.^ It remains to inquire whether a
person who has received a Sacrament sacrilegiously can
recover its effects.

Theologians are agreed '^ that if Baptism be received by
an adult in the state of mortal sin, he can obtain the graces
of the Sacrament later, when the obstacle has been re-
moved by contrition or by the worthy reception of Pen-
ance. " In the case of him who has approached the Sac-
rament in deceit," says St. Augustine, " there is no sec^-
ond Baptism, but he is purged by faithful discipline and
truthful confession, which he could not be without Bap-
tism, so that what was given before, becomes then power-
ful to work his salvation, when the former deceit is done
away by the truthful confession." ^ It is to be remarked,
however, that cases of this kind are sometimes quite com-
plicated in practice. If one who has received Baptism
iicte, as it is technically termed, commits no additional
mortal sin after his sacrilegious Baptism, the Sacrament
may recover its effects as soon as he has the disposition
he ought to have had when he received it, i. e. imperfect
contrition (attritio). But if he renders himself guilty
of new mortal sins after Baptism, attrition will not suffice ;
he must have perfect contrition (contritio) with a firm

6 V. supra, pp. 68 sqq. fit ut non dentio bapticetur, sed

1 Some have excepted Vasquez ipsa pia correctione et veraci con-

(Disp., 159, sect. i), but that fessione purgetur, quod non posset

author's teaching on this head is sine baptismo, ut quod ante datum

really in accord with the common est, tunc valere incipiat ad salutem,

doctrine. quitm ilia fictio veraci confessione

S De Baptismo c. Donat., I, 12, recesserat."
18: "In illo, qui fictus accesserat.

THE RECIPIENT 195

purpose of going to confession, because grievous sins
committed after Baptism can be remitted only by the
power of the keys.** If his contrition is not perfect,
the unworthily received Sacrament of Baptism can re-
cover its effects only in connection with Penance, which
blots out mortal sin ex opere operato, and removes the
obstacle that prevented the infusion of grace. The same
is true of one who, being deceived as to his own dispo-
sition, has received Baptism without imperfect contrition,
(which, in the adult, is an indispensable requisite for the
valid reception of that Sacrament), and then commits ad-
ditional mortal sins.

The reviviscence is not so certain in the case of the
other Sacraments. Theologians unanimously hold that
Confirmation and Holy Orders can recover their effects on
account of the permanent character which they imprint
on the soul. The contrary assumption would lead to the
untenable and intolerable conclusion that the sacrilegious
reception of Sacraments that cannot be repeated would
deprive the recipient forever both of sanctifying grace and
the sacramental (actual) graces proper to these Sacra-
ments. In other words, one who has received Confirma-
tion unworthily, even if he repent, could never receive
the grace of that Sacrament, which is so necessary for the
preservation of the faith, and a priest who had received
Ploly Orders unworthily, though validly, would never,
according to that theory, receive the special graces pe-
culiar to ordination, without which it is impossible to ad-
minister the sacerdotal office properly.^"

0 On this point see the treatise on Apud vos quidcm aliena sunt; sed

the Sacrament of Penance. quum vos correctos recil>it, cuius

10 Cfr. St. Augustine, Coutia sunt, fiunt ea salubritcr vcstra, quae

Crescon., II, lo: " Christiana sane perniciose habebaiis aliena."
sacramcnta in vobis agnosco . .

196 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

Applying what we have said to Extreme Unction and
Matrimony, we may go a step further and affirm that these
two Sacraments are Hkewise capable of being " revived."
Matrimony cannot be received twice by the same parties,
and Extreme Unction may not be repeated whilst the same
danger of death lasts. Hence these two Sacraments may
be said to be at least relatively incapable of repetition,
and therefore capable of reviviscence.

The case is different with Penance and the Holy
Eucharist. These two Sacraments, if sacrilegiously re-
ceived, do not recover their effects when the obstacle is
removed. There can be no " reviviscence " of Penance,
because if the penitent is not sufficiently disposed to re-
ceive grace at the time he confesses his sins, the Sacra-
ment is not validly received, since the acts of the penitent
are a necessary part of the matter of this Sacrament.^^
There can be no " reviviscence " of the Holy Eucharist
after the sacred species are consumed, because the fruits
of this Sacrament may be supplied through other chan-
nels.^^ To these particular reasons must be added a gen-
eral one, vis.: that Catholics can receive these two Sacra-
ments as often as they please.^^

3. The Right Intention a Necessary Req-
uisite FOR the Valid Reception of the Sacra-
ments ON the Part of the Recipient. — In
adults, according to the teaching of the Council of
Trent, justification always takes place "through
the voluntary reception of grace and the gifts." ^'^

11 See the treatise on Penance. cramentis in Gcnere, disp. 9, sect. 6.

12 See the treatise on the Holy 14 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, cap.
Eucharist. 7: "... per voluntariam suseep-

13 On the whole subject of this tionem gratiae et donorum."
subdivision cfr. De Lugo, De Sa-

THE RIGHT INTENTION 197

Consequently, justification, if effected through the
Sacraments, must be voluntary and requires a cor-
responding intention in the recipient. We have
learned in a previous treatise,^^ that the entire
process of justification, no matter whether it
terminate in the reception of a Sacrament or not,
consists of a long chain of preparatory acts per-
formed with the help of grace. Hence every
adult who desires to be justified, must have a
positive intention to receive the Sacrament.
Pace Cardinal Cajetan, who stands alone in his
opposition to this theory, interior repugnance, or
even neutrality, renders the Sacrament invalid,
a) The teaching of Tradition is unanimous on
this point.

St. Augustine says : " From insufficiency of age they
[infants] can neither beheve with the heart unto right-
eousness, nor make confession with the mouth unto salva-
tion. Therefore, when others take the vows for them,
that the celebration of the Sacrament may be complete in
their behalf, it is unquestionably of avail for their dedi-
cation to God, because they cannot answer for themselves.
But if another were to answer for one who could answer
for himself, it would not be of the same avail. In ac-
cordance with this rule we find in the Gospel what strikes
every one as natural when he reads it : ' He is of age,
he shall speak for himself.' " ^° Several ancient councils

15 Grace, Actual and Habitual, pp. ncc ore confiteri ad salutem. Ideo
272 sqq. quum alii pro eis respondent, ut im-

16 De Bapt. c. Donat., IV, 24: plcatur erga eos celebratio sacra-
" Ex aetatis indigentla [parvuti] ncc menti, valet utiqtte ad eorum Con-
corde credere ad iustiliam possunt sccrationem, quia ipsi rcspondcre

198 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

forbade the administration of the Sacraments, including
those that are indispensable for salvation, to subjects in-
disposed for their worthy reception.^'^ Pope Innocent III,
in his decree against the adherents of Pierre de Bruys and
other sectaries, emphatically insists upon the necessity of
a right intention. He says : " He who never consents,
but contradicts with all his might, receives neither the
grace nor the character of the Sacrament." ^* The Roman
Ritual and the ordinary practice of the Church are in per-
fect conformity with this teaching, which St. Thomas, and
the Scholastics generally, base ( i ) on the positive will of
Christ, who does not force His benefits upon any one, and
(2) on the essential character of the Sacraments as acts
of religious worship, which can only be performed de-
liberately and with a free will.^"

b) What kind of an intention must the recipi-
ent have to receive a Sacrament validly ? "'^

The majority of theologians hold that the Holy Eu-
charist requires for its valid reception no intention what-
ever. This is a strange opinion, which we cannot share.
A Catholic forced to take the Sacred Host against his will
could no more be said to receive Holy Communion validly
than an unbelieving Jew. True, he would receive a per-

non possunt. At si pro eo qui re-
spondere potest, alius respondeat,
non itidem valet. Ex qua regula
illud in evangelio dictum est, quod
omnes, quum legitur, naturaliter
movet (loa. IX, 21): Aetatem ha-
bet, ipse pro se loquatur."

17 E. g., the First Council of
Orange; cfr. Labbe, Concil., t. Ill,
p. 1449: " Subito obmtttescens,
prout status eius est, bapticari aut
poenitentiani accipere potest, si
voluntatis aut praeteritae testimo-

nium aliorum verbis habet aut prae-
sentis in suo nutu."

IS Cap. " Maiores:" " Ille vero,
qui nunquam consentit, sed penitus
contradicit, nee rem nee charactcrem
suscipit saeramenti." (Denzinger-
Bannwart, n. 411).

19 On some alleged instances of
compulsory ordination see Billuart,
De Sacram. in Communi, diss. 6, art.
I.

20 On the intention required of the
minister, see supra, pp. 175 sqq.

THE RIGHT INTENTION 199

manent Sacrament, but his reception of it would be a
merely physical act, and consequently devoid of the true
sacramental character and unproductive of grace.

Matrimony requires for its valid reception not merely
an habitual or interpretative, but a virtual intention, be-
cause the contracting parties mutually administer the Sac-
rament to each other.-^

Some theologians demand a virtual intention also for
the valid reception of Holy Orders, claiming that such
onerous duties as celibacy and the recitation of the Divine
Office demand mature deliberation and a deep selfknowl-
edge.

In all other cases it may safely be affirmed that the
habitual intention is sufficient, because the Church
regards the reception of the Sacraments by insane or un-
conscious persons as valid if it can be shown that the re-
cipient had previously expressed, and never formally re-
voked, the intention of receiving them.^^ In the case of
Extreme Unction it is customary to administer the Sac-
rament on the strength of a purely interpretative in-
tention, because every Catholic may reasonably be pre-
sumed to have the wish of dying in conformity with
the teaching and practice of the Church.

21 See the treatise on Matrimony intelligitur contradictionis proposi-
in Vol. XI of this series. turn perdurare, etsi fucrint immersi,

22 Cfr. Pope Innocent III, Cap. charactcrem non suscipiunt sacra-
" Maiorcs " : " Dormicntes autcm et menti; secus autem si prius catechu-
amentes, si priusqiiam amentiam in- meni exstitisscnt et habuissent pro-
currercnt aut dormirent, in con- positum baptisandi."

tradictione persisterent, quia in eis

SECTION 2

THE REQUISITES OF WORTHY RECEPTION

I. Preliminary Remarks. — A Sacrament,
though validly administered, is not received
worthily, i. e. does not confer grace, unless the
recipient has the right disposition.

A Sacrament (sacramentum tantum) and the sacra-
mental grace which it confers {res tantum, effectus) are
two separate and distinct things. A Sacrament does not
fulfil the whole purpose for which it was instituted unless
it actually confers grace. (The sacramental characters
imprinted by Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders are
also interior effects ; but they are merely gratiae gratis
datae, not gratiae gratum facientes, and therefore have
nothing to do with the disposition of the recipient.) ^
It follows that the worthy reception of a Sacrament re-
quires something more on the part of the recipient than
mere valid reception.- In determining the requisites of
a worthy reception of the Sacraments the Church shows
how exalted her moral ideals are.^ She declares that
whoever consciously receives a Sacrament in an unworthy
manner, i. e. without due preparation, is guilty of a sacri-
lege."* The unworthy recipient commits a greater

1 V. supra, pp. 79 sqq. 4 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa TheoL,

2 V. supra, Section i. 23. 2ae, qu. 90, art. 3.

3 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII,
cap. 7.

200

REQUISITES OF WORTHY RECEPTION 201

sin than the unworthy minister, because he prevents the
Sacrament from taking effect. What St. Paul says of the
unworthy reception of the Eucharist,^ applies in a manner
to all the Sacraments, inasmuch as the sacrilegious re-
cipient manifests contempt for the Precious Blood of
Christ and compels our Lord, who is the principal min-
ister, to perform a useless act, at least in as far as the
object of immediate sanctification is concerned. St. Au-
gustine draws a distinction between habere and utiliter
habere ^ and asks : " What does it avail a man to
be baptized if he is not justified?"^ The Church has
always insisted on the necessity of due preparation for the
reception of the Sacraments.

2. Sacraments of the Living and Sacra-
ments OF the Dead. — The requisites of worthy
reception are not the same for all the Sacraments.
The so-called Sacraments of the dead require for
their worthy reception attrition along with its
various dispositive acts (faith, fear, hope, etc.),
whereas the Sacraments of the living demand
nothing less than the state of grace.

a) Sacraments of the dead are those instituted
for the remission of sin or the production of the
state of grace (iiistiHcatio prima). There are
two — Baptism and Penance. Their worthy re-
ception depends upon the same requisites as justi-
fication itself, vis.: faith, fear, hope of forgive-
ness, contrition and a firm purpose of amend-

5 I Cor. XI, 27 sq. " Quid cuiquam prodest quod bapti-

0 De Bapt. c. Donat., IV, 17, 24. satur, si non iustificatur? "
7 De Civitate Dei, XXI, 27, 3:

202 THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL

ment. Cfr. Mark XVI, i6: ''He that believeth
and is baptized, shall be saved." Acts II, 38:
*'Do penance and be baptized every one of you in
the name of Jesus Christ." ^

The contrition required for Baptism and Pen-
ance need not be perfect. Perfect contrition
(contritio) , which is a true supernatural sorrow
from a motive of perfect charity, justifies a man
independently of the Sacraments. Baptism and
Penance can be worthily received by one who has
an imperfect contrition. Imperfect contrition
(attritio) is a true supernatural sorrow from a
motive of incipient charity or fear, coupled with a
firm purpose of amendment.® It removes moral
indisposition (remotio obicis) and renders the
sinner worthy of receiving either Baptism or
Penance, thereby enabling these Sacraments to
effect his justification ex opere operato.

b) The case is somewhat different with the
Sacraments of the living. Confirmation, the
Holy Eucharist, Extreme Unction, Matrimony,
and Holy Orders presuppose the state of sancti-
fying grace, which they merely increase (iusti-
iicatio secunda). Hence the only requisite of a
worthy reception of these Sacraments is the state
of grace. He who is in the state of grace places
no obstacle {obex) to the efficacy of these Sacra-

8 On justification, cfr. Pohle- o Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI,

Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, cap. 7; Sess. XIV, cap. 3.
pp. 274 sqq.

REQUISITES OF WORTHY RECEPTION 203

ments, because he is not guilty of mortal sin.
Venial sin may diminish but cannot prevent the
effect of these Sacraments.

The sanctifying grace required for these Sac-
raments can be obtained either by making an act
of perfect contrition or by worthily receiving the
Sacrament of Penance.^^ Confession, moreover,
is prescribed by a law of the Church for the
worthy reception of Communion.^^ Though no
such positive precept exists with regard to the
other Sacraments, still confession as a fitting
preparation for every one of them cannot be too
urgently recommended.

Readings : — Besides the current text-books consult St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 64, and the commentators, especially *Billu-
art, De Sacramentis in Genere, diss, i, art. 2 sqq. Likewise Am-
brosius Catharinus, De Necessaria Intentione in P erflciendis Sa-
cramentis, Rome 1552; Serry, De Necessaria Intentione in Sacra-
mentis Coniiciendis, Padua 1727; L. Haas, Die notwendige In-
tention des Ministers ziir giilligen V erwaltung der hi. Sakra-
mente, Bamberg 1869; *Franzelin, De Sacramentis in Genere, thes.
15 sqq. ; P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, § 11, Frei-
burg 1893. Additional bibliographical information in *Fr. Mor-
gott, Der Spender der hi. Sakramente nach der Lehre dcs hi,
Thomas, Freiburg 1886.

Concerning the requisites of worthy reception cfr. Suarez,
Comment, in S. Theol., Ill, disp. 14 sqq. ; *De Lugo, De Sacra-
mentis in Centre, disp. 9; Tournely, De Sacramentis in Genere,
qu. 8; Schanz, op. cit., § 12; N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente der
kath. Kirche, Vol. i, 2nd ed., § 23, Freiburg 1902.

10 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa man or divine, which imposes any
Theol., 3a, qu. 79, art. 8. obligation on the faithful in general

11 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, to confess venial sins. The divine
cap. 7: Of course this law "only law does not do this, as the Council
affects those who have fallen into of Trent explains (Sess. XIV, c. s).
mortal sin, so that, although venial and the Lateran law only determines
sin may be confessed and affords the divine law." (Slater, A Man-
sufficient matter for sacramental ual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, p.
absolution, yet there is no law, hu- 566).

PART II
BAPTISM

The Catechism of the Council of Trent defines
Baptism as "the Sacrament of regeneration by
water in the word." ^

This definition has been ampHfied by Catholic
theologians as follows: "Baptism is a Sacra-
ment instituted by Christ, in which, by the out-
ward washing of the body with water, with in-
vocation of the Three Persons of the Most Holy
Trinity, man is spiritually reborn and sanctified
unto life everlasting,

Hence the names : /?a7rTto-/x,os ( from fidiTTtiv, to im-
merse), " laver of regeneration ; " </>wTtCT/i,a, i. e. "' illumina-
tion," " tinctio," etc." Baptismus is sometimes used by
the early Fathers to designate not only Baptism proper,
but the anointing and laying-on of hands pecuhar to the
Sacrament of Confirmation. It is not true, however, as
Harnack asserts, that Confirmation developed into an
independent Sacrament by " a despoliation of the bap-
tismal rite." ^

1 p. II, cap. 2, n. s: "Sacra- Sakramenten, Vol. I, § i, Miinster

mentum regenerationis per aquani 1894.

in verbo." 3 Dogmengeschichte, Vol. I, 3rd

a The term tinctio is frequently ed., p. 358. Ste 'DoXs^r, Das Sakra-

used by Tertullian. Cfr. Oswald, vient der Firmung, pp. i sqq., Vien-

Die dogmatische Lehre von den hi. na 1906.

204

CHAPTER I

BAPTISM A TRUE SACRAMENT

Baptism is a true Sacrament because it was in-
stituted by Jesus Christ as an external sign for the
communication of internal grace.

205

SECTION I

DIVINE INSTITUTION

The Council of Trent defines: "If any one
saith that the Sacraments of the New Law were
not all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, or that
they are more or less than seven, to wit: Bap-
tism, etc., ... or even that any one of these
seven is not truly and properly a Sacrament, let
him be anathema." ^

I. Proof From Revelation. — Notwithstand-
ing Harnack's assertion that "it cannot be shown
that Jesus instituted Baptism," ^ a perfectly con-
clusive argument for the divine institution of this
Sacrament may be construed from Scripture and
Tradition.

a) In the Old Testament Baptism was prefig-
ured as a true Sacrament by many important
types, — e. g., circumcision, the deluge, the passage
of the Chosen People through the Red Sea, etc.^

1 Sess. VII, Da Sacram., can. i : propria sacramentum, anathema
"Si qtiis dixerit, sacramenta Novae sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 844).
Legis non fuisse omnia a lesu 2 Dogmengeschichte, Vol. I, 2nd

Christo instituta aut esse plura vel ed., p. 68, n. 3. Freiburg 1894.
pauciora quant septem, vid. baptis- 3 Cfr. St. Ambrose, De Myst., cap.

mum, etc., . . . aut etiam aliquod 3.
horum septem non esse vere et

206

DIVINE INSTITUTION 207

Cf r. Ez. XXXVI, 25 : "I will pour out upon you clean
water, and you shall be cleansed from all your filthi-
ness." *

Zach. XIII, I : "In that day [of the Messianic king-
dom] there shall be a fountain open to the house of David,
and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for the washing of
the sinner and of the unclean woman." ^

When John the Baptist told the priests and Levites who
had been sent from Jerusalem to question him, that he was
not the Christ, they wonderingly inquired: " Why then
dost thou baptize, if thou be not Christ, nor Elias, nor the
prophet ? " *^ John explained that he baptized not as the
future Messias would baptize, i. e. " with the Holy Ghost,"
but merely as a preparation for His coming. " I indeed
baptize you in water unto penance, but he that shall soon
come after me, is mightier than I, ... he shall baptize
you in the Holy Ghost and fire." ^

Shortly after Christ began His public life, He
came to the Jordan and was baptized by John,^
thereby, as the Fathers explain, communicating
to the baptismal water the power of forgiving
sins. In his discourse with Nicodemus, Jesus de-
clared that "unless a man be born again of water
and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the
kingdom of God." ^ At His command the dis-

4 Ez. XXXVI, 25: " Effundam tizas, si tu non es Christus neque
super vos aquam mundatn ct mun- Elias neque propheta? "
dabimini ab omnibus inquinamentis 7 Matth. Ill, ii: "Ego quidem
vestris." baptizo vos in aqua in pocniten-

5 Zach. XIII, i: "In die ilia erit tiam; qui autem post me venlurns
fans patens domui David et habitan- est, fortior me est, . . . ipse vos
tibus Jerusalem in ablutionem pec- baptiaabit in Spiritu Sancto ct igni."
catoris et menstruatac." 8 Cfr. Matth. Ill, 13.

6 John I, 25: "Quid ergo bap- 0 John III, 5: "Nisi quis rcna-

2o8

BAPTISM

ciples also baptized with water.^*' Before His
Ascension He commanded them to go into the
whole world, to preach the gospel to all men, and
to baptize. ''All power is given to me in heaven
and on earth. Going therefore, teach ye all na-
tions, baptizing them in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." ^^

b) How firmly the belief in the divine institu-
tion of Baptism was rooted among the faithful
in the primitive Church, is clear from the fact
that, with but few exceptions,^^ all heretical sects
admitted the Sacrament, though some of them
misunderstood its nature or denied its necessity.

This well-nigh universal consensus renders it superflu-
ous to work out a detailed argument from Tradition. We
will merely adduce a passage from Tertullian. Com-
menting on the opposition between the Old and New
Testaments, that writer says : " In days gone by there
was salvation by means of bare faith, before the passion
of the Lord. But now that the faith has been enlarged,
. . . there has been an amplification of the Sacrament,
[namely], the sealing act of Baptism. . . . For the
law of baptizing has been imposed, and the formula pre-
scribed: Go, saith [Jesus], teach all nations, baptizing

tus fuerit ex agua et Spiritu Sancto,
non potest introire in regnum Dei."

10 Cfr. John III, 26.

11 Matth. XXVIII, 19: "Data
est mihi omnis potestas in coelo et
in terra. Euntes ergo docete omnes
gentes haptizantes eos in nomine
Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti."
(Cfr. Mark XVI, 15 sq.). On the
authenticity of this text see Riggen-

bach, Der trinitarische Taufbefehl
nach seiner urspriinglichen Te.rtge-
stalt und seiner Authentie, Giiters-
loh 1903, and the Journal of Theo-
logical Studies, 1 90s, pp. 481 sqq.

12 The only exceptions we know
of, are the ancient Gnostics and
Manichseans, certain spiritualistic
sects of the Middle Ages, and the
modern Socinians.

DIVINE INSTITUTION

209

them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost." '^

2. When Did Christ Institute Baptism?
— While the Fathers and theologians are unani-
mous regarding the fact of the divine institution
of Baptism, they differ as to the precise time when
this Sacrament was instituted.

a) Some ^* think that Baptism was instituted on Ascen-
sion day, when our*Lord said to His disciples : " Going
therefore, teach ye all nations, baptizing them in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." ^^
The advocates of this view contend that the institution
of a Sacrament is a legislative act, and that no such act
with regard to Baptism is on record anywhere in the Gos-
pels outside of Matth. XXVIII, 19. This agrees with the
idea that the Church was forjnally established on Pente-
cost, and that it was only after its formal establishment
that Baptism became necessary as a " door of entrance "
into the Church.

It is objected to this view that the Apostles were alike
Christians and priests before Christ's Passion and death,
and that the power of consecrating bread and wine, which
they received at the Last Supper, manifestly supposes that
they were baptized. The defenders of tbe theory just

13 De Bapt., c. 13: "Retro qui-
dem salus fiiit per fidem nudam
ante Domini passionem. At ttbi
fides aucta est credendi, addita est
ampliatio sacramenti: obsignatio bap-
tismi. . . . Lex eniin tingendi im-
posita est et forma praescripla: He,
inquit, docete omncs nationcs, tin-
gcntes eas in nomine Patris et Filii
et Spiritus Sancti." Further Pa-
tristic texts infra. No. 2.

14 TertuIIian (De Bapt., c. 11
sqq.), St. Chrysostom (Horn, in loa.,
28), St. Leo the Great (Ep. 16 ad
Sic. Episc.), Alexander of Hales
(Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 4, qu.
12, m. 3, art. i), Melchior Cano
(De Locis TheoL, VIII, 5), lier-
lage, Oswald, Bisping, Schanz, et
al.

15 Matth. XXVIir, 19.

^10

BAPTISM

outlined reply that a mere act of the will on the part of
the God-man was sufficient to make the Apostles Chris-
tians, nay priests and bishops, and that the only one who
needed Baptism was St. Paul, because he came later.
Cfr. Acts IX, i8: " And rising up, he was baptized." ^®

b) Others hold that our Lord instituted the Sacrament
of Baptism before His sacred passion, eitl]erat__the
time of His own Baptism by St. John, or in JiisL.dis-CQUX^e
with NicodemusT*'* — TtraTThFacFoflnstitution began with
Christ's own Baptism as terminus a quo, was the opinion
of such eminent. Fathers as St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St.
Augustine, and St. Ambrose.^^ It is also the teaching of
St. Thomas. *"' A3ax5ramefit is then instituted," he says,
" when it receives the power of producing its effect. Now
Baptism received this power when Christ was baptized.
Consequently Baptism, considered as a Sacrament, was
truly instituted at that time." ^^

Suarez -° explains this more fully as follows : What
happened when our Lord was baptized in the Jordan was
merely the designation of matter and form. The formal
institution of the Sacrament required a positive act or
command, which must have followed soon after, as we
read in the third and fourth chapters of St. John's Gospel
that the disciples of Jesus baptized.^'^ The Baptism they

icAct. IX, i8: " Et surgens
bapti::atns est."

17 That the Sacrament of Baptism
was instituted by our Lord in
His discourse with Nicodemus,
was held by very few theologians,
notably St. Bernard and Estius.
Modern writers quite generally re-
ject this view because of the private
character of that discourse.

18 7« Luc, 1. II, n. 83: " Bap-
tisatus est ergo Dominus non mun-
dari volens, scd mundare aquas, ut
ahlutae per carnem Christi, quae pec-

catitm non novit, baptismatis ius
habcrcnt."

10 Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 66, art.
2: " Tunc videtur aliquod sacra-
mcntum institui, quando accipit vir-
tutem producendi suuni effectum.
Hanc autem virtutem accepit bap-
iismus, quando Christus est bap-
ti::atus. Unde tunc vere baptismus
institiitiis fuit quantum ad ipsiim
sacramentum."

20 De Sacram., disp. 19, sect. 2, n.

21 John III, 26; IV, 2.

DIVINE INSTITUTION 211

administered cannot have been a mere Baptism of prose-
lytes, nor yet a Baptism unto penance, like that of the
Precursor, but it must have been that Baptism " in the
Holy Ghost and fire " which John himself had so sharply
distinguished from his own.^^

According to this theory, therefore, the institution of
the Sacrament of Baptism coincides with the beginning
of our Lord's public career.^^ Scotus says : " The dis-
ciples of Christ baptized before the passion; whence it
follows that the Sacrament was instituted before that
event, though the Gospel tells us nothing about the exact
time." 2*

There is an ancient tradition that Jesus Himself bap-
tized St. Peter, St. Peter baptized St. Andrew and the
sons of Zebedee, and these in turn baptized the remaining
Apostles, while the seventy disciples received the Sacra-
rament at the hands of Peter and John.^^

c) Which of the opinions just reviewed is the more
probable one? Both are supported by solid arguments.
Sacramental Baptism may have been instituted by our
Lord before His Passion without those characteristics of
universality and necessity (nccessitas medii) which at-
tached to it after the Ascension. It was only when He
spoke the words : " Euntes ergo," etc., that He solemnly
promulgated this Sacrament as an indispensable means of
salvation for all men. Hence the two views can easily be

22 Cfr. Matth. Ill, ii; Mark I, ci[iuli Christi baptisabant, licet hora
8; Luke III, 16; John I, 33. institiitionis non Icgatur in Evan-

23 Cfr. J. Grimm, Das Leben gelio." Similarly Gabriel Bid,
Jesu, Vol. II, pp. 364 sq., Ratisbon Suarez, Holzklau {VVirceb.), and
1878. more recently Chr. Pesch (Prae-

24 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 3, led. Dogtnat., Vol. VI, 3rd ed., p.
qu. 4: " Discipuli Christi ante pas- 156, Freiburg 1908).

sionem Christi baptisabant. Con- 25 Cfr. Nicephorus Callistus, Hist,

vincitur ergo temptis institHtionis Eccles., II, 3.
fuisse ante Hind tempus. quo dis-

212 BAPTISM

reconciled by assuming that Baptismjwasjns.tituted for a
limited circle and without superseding...circunicision, at
the beginning of our Saviour's public career, but was not
solemnly promulgated nor invested with the characteris-
tics of universality and necessity until after His Ascen-
sion. St. Bonaventure, finding a grain of truth in each
of these hypotheses, happily blends them as follows:
" When was Baptism instituted ? With regard to its mat-
ter, it was instituted at the time when Christ was baptized
in the Jordan; with regard to its form, when He arose
from the dead and desigiiated the forrn^ (^Matth. XXVHI,
19) ; with regard to its effects, when He suffered, because
it is from His passion that the virtue of the Sacrament
springs; and with regard to its final end and object, when
He foretold its necessity and utility by saying (John
III, 5) : 'Unless a man be born again,' etc." ^^

26 Comment, in loa., c. 3, n. 19: virtutem; sed finaliter, quum eius

" Quando institutus est baptismtis? necessitatem praedixit et utilitatem

Dicendum quod materialiter, quum (loa. Ill, 5): Nisi quis renatus

baptisatus fuit Christus; formaliter, fuerit, etc," Cfr. c the Innsbruck

quum resurrexit et formam dedit Zeitschrift fur kath. Theologie, 1905,

(Matth. XXVIII, 19); effectk'e, pp. 53 sqq.
quum passus fuit, quia inde habuit

SECTION 2

MATTER AND FORM

According to Catholic teaching the remote matter of
Baptism is natural water ; its proximate matter is the act
of external washing; while the sacramental form is con-
tained in the words : " I baptize thee in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."

I. Natural Water the Remote Matter of
Baptism. — By natural water (aqua naturalis) is
meant a liquid compound of hydrogen and oxy-
gen in the proportion of two to one. This defini-
tion excludes artificial compounds such as eau de
Cologne, as well as water in other than liquid
form, e. g. steam or ice.^ That natural water is
indispensable for the validity of Baptism has been
clearly defined by the Tridentine Council: 'Tf
any one saith that true and natural water is not
of necessity for Baptism, ... let him be ana-
thema." ^ This declaration excludes the figura-
tive use of the term "water," as employed by the
later Socinians, and also Luther's assertion that

1 Cfr. the Catcchismus Romanus, n. 858): "Si quis dixerit, aquam
P. II, c. 2, n. 7. vcrain ct naturalcm non esse de

2 Cone. Trident., Sess. \'II, De necessitate pracccpti, . . . anathema
Bapt., can. 2 (Denzinger-Bannwart, sit."

213

214 BAPTISM

any liquid that can be used to bathe in, is vaHd
matter for Baptism.^

a) The Old Testament types clearly point to natural
water as the element of the future Sacrament of Bap-
tism, Such types are, e. g., the deluge,* the passage of
the Israelites through the Red Sea,'^ the stream of water
which Moses drew from the rock in the desert, etc. The
prophetical " fons patens" in the passage quoted from
Zacharias '^ obviously refers to the baptismal font of the
New Law. John and the disciples baptized with ordinary
water. Jesus Christ descended into the river Jordan to
receive Baptism. Wherever the New Testament men-
tions the Sacrament of regeneration, it invariably speaks
of water. Cf r. John III, 5 : " Unless a man be born
again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into
the kingdom of heaven." When Philip and the eunuch
of Queen Candace " came to* a certain water," the latter
exclaimed : " See, here is water : what doth hinder me
from being baptized ? " ^

The Baptism " of fire and the Holy Ghost," of which
the Precursor speaks, does not denote an outward rite but
refers to the spiritual effect of the Sacrament administered
in the name of Christ.^

b) The Catholic Church has always conscien-
tiously adhered, both in theory and practice, to the
use of natural water as the only valid element of
Baptism.

3 ". . . quidquid balnei loco esse C Zach. XIII, i.

possit, illud aptum esse ad baptican- 7 Acts VIII, 36: " Eccc aqua,

dum." The passage occurs in his quid prohihet me bapti::ari? " Cfr.

Table Talk. Cfr. Pallavicini, Hist. Acts X, 47; Eph. V, 26.

Cone. Trident., IX, 7. 8 Cfr. Ansaldi, O. P., De Bap-

4 I Pet. Ill, 20 sqq, tismate in Spiritu Sancto et Igni,
e I Cor. X, 2 sqq. Milan 1752.

MATTER AND FORM

215

Tertullian exclaims : " O happy Sacrament of our wa-
ter, by which, cleansed of the faults of pristine blindness,
we are made free unto eternal life ! " "

St. Augustine says: " What is the Baptism of Christ?
A bath in the word. Take away the water, and there is
no Baptism; take away the word, and there is no Bap-
tism." 10

The Fathers of the Church were familiar with the cere-
mony of blessing the baptismal font.^^

St. Cyprian writes : " Therefore it behooves water to
be first cleansed and sanctified by a priest, in order that
by his Baptism he may be able to wash away the sins of
him who is baptized." ^^

St. Gregory of Nyssa says : " The sanctified water
cleanses and illumines a man." ^^

It was because of her firm conviction that water is the
necessary element of Baptism that the Church condemned
the practice of baptizing with oil, introduced by the
Gnostic sect of the Marcosians, or with fire, as affected
by the Jacobites and Cathari in the Middle Ages, or with
beer, as attempted by certain Norwegians.^^

c) Speculative..ilieQlQg)LJias discovered a va-
riety of reasons showing the fitness of water to

0 De Bapt., c. i, n. i: "Felix
sacramcntum aquae nostrae, qua
abluti delictis pristinae caccitatis
in vitam aeternam liberamur 1 "

10 Tract, in loa., 15, n. 4:
" Quid est baptismus Christi?
Lavacrtcm aquae in verba. Tolle
aquam, non est baptismus; tolle ver-
bum, non est baptismus."

11 On the antiquity of this cere-
mony consult Probst, Sakramente
und Sakramoxtalicn in den ersten
drei Jahrhundcrten, 'pp. 74 sqq.,
Tijbingen 1872.

12 £/>., 70, I : " Oportct ergo

mundari et sanctificari aquam priiis
a sacerdote, tit possit baptismo suo
peccata hominis, qui baptizatur,
abluere."

13 Or. de Bapt. Christi: ijSwp
evXoyov/x.epov KaOalpei /cat (pwrl^ei
rhv avOpuTTOV. — On certain exag-
gerated notions current in Patristic
days with regard to the efficacy of
the water " sanctified " for Bap-
tism, see Pourrat, La Theologie Sa-
cramentaire, pp. 47 sqq., Paris 1910
(English tr., pp. 56 sq.).

li Cfr. the letter addressed by
Pope Gregory IX to the bishops of

2i6 BAPTISM

serve as the element of Baptism. We will men-
tion only a few.

a) Baptism, being a Sacrament instituted for the for-
giveness of sins, requires an element which symbolizes
both the dissolution and removal of moral filth and the
healing- of the souL Now water is not only the ordinary
and most effective means of cleansing, but it is likewise
a medicine and a preservative of health. Pindar's saw
"A/310-T0V [xlv vSo)p, embodies the universal conviction of
mankind. Water, moreover, is by^natufe-^eoal, and re-
f reshing, and consequently well adapted to serve as a sym-
bol o f grace,~whlclf extinguishes the fi re of concupiscence."
It was quite natural, therefore, for the Jews to employ
water as an element of purification in their religious
ceremonies,^^ and for the Gentiles to use it in their mystic
ablutions." Such usages clearly speak for the Catholic
doctrine.^'^

)S) As the Sacrament of " regeneration," — whence the
term " neophytes " for those recently baptized, — Baptism
furthermore requires an element that serves an important
purpose in organic nature. Water is indispensable for the
growth of plants and animals. Gen. I, 2 : " And the
spirit of God moved [the Hebrew text has ' brooded ']
over the waters." The fact that the foetus of mammals,
birds, and reptiles is enclosed in a " water bag " (amnion),
led some of the Fathers, e. g. St. Chrysostom, to compare
the baptismal font with the womb.^^ Then there are crea-
tures that canT live only in water, and since Baptism,
being " the first and most necessary Sacrament," is as in-

Norway, in Raynald, Annales Ec- times and among non-Christian na-

cles. ad annum 1241, n. 42, tions, consult Oswald, Die dogma-

15 Cfr. Numb. VIII, 7. tische Lehre von den hi. Sakra-

16 Cfr. Tertullian, De Bapt., c. 5. menten, sth ed., § i.

17 On Baptism in pre-Christian 18 V. supra, pp. 130 sq.

MATTER AND FORM 217

dispensable to the supernatural life of the soul as water
is to the natural life of fish, Tertullian appropriately com-
pares the faithful to " little fishes," who are born in water
and move in it as their vital element.^^

The fact that no natural element is so easily available as
water also points to the necessity of Baptism for salva-
tion.

2. Washing with Water the Proximate
Matter of Baptism. — Baptism is administered
by means of washing, i. e. applying the water to
the subject. This application must be a true ablu-
tion (ablutio vera), i. e. it must involve a contact
that is both physical and successive. In other
words, the baptismal water must actually touch
the body and flow over it.

This twofold contact can be efifected by immersion,
effusion, and aspersion. The validity of the present
practice of effusion has been indirectly defined against
the schismatic Greeks by the Council of Trent : " If
any one saith that in the Roman Church, which is the
mother and mistress of all churches, there is not the true
doctrine concerning the Sacrament of Baptism, let him be
anathema." -°

a) The very name haptismus (derived from
^diTTav^ to immerse), as well as St. Paul's use of the

10 De Bapl., c. i : " Scd nos " Si quis dixerit, in Ecclesia Roma-

pisculi secundum lx6i>v nostrum na, quae omnium ccclesiarum mater

lesum Christum in aqua nascimiir, est ct magistra, non esse veram de

nee alitcr quam in aqua pcrma- baptismi sacramcnto doctrinam,

nendo salvi sumus." anathema sit." (Denzinger-Bann-

20 Sess. VII, De Bapl., can. 3: wart, n. 859).

2i8 BAPTISM

term "laver of water," ^^ indicate that Baptism
was originally accomplished by immersion.

However, since the Baptism of the three thousand con-
verts on Pentecost Day,-^ and that of the keeper of the
prison and his family by Paul and Silas,-^ can hardly be
supposed to have taken place by immersion, it is likely that
already in the Apostolic age Baptism was sometimes con-
ferred by effusion or aspersion.

b) That washing with water is the materia
proxima of Baptism cannot be proved from Sa-
cred Scripture, but it can be convincingly demon-
strated from Tradition.

Tertullian describes Baptism as " a sprinkling with any
kind of water." -*

St. Augustine declares that Baptism has the power of
forgiving sins even if the water " merely sprinkles the
child ever so slightly." "^

A convincing proof for the antiquity of Baptism by
effusion is furnished by the so-called " baptismus clini-
corum" (rj kXivt), bed), which was always administered in
that way.-'' When a certain Magnus professed to have
scruples of conscience regarding this mode of administer-
ing the Sacrament, St. Cyprian assured him that it was
perfectly valid.^^

21 Eph. V, 26: Tw XovTpw Toi/ tern etiam tantillum mundet infan-
VBaros- tern."

22 Acts II. 41, 2G Cfr. Eusebius, Hist. EccL, VI,
28 Acts XVI, 33. 43; Martene, De Antiquis Ecdesiae
24: De Bapt., c. 6: "una aspergio Ritibus, I, i, 14.

cuiuslibet aquae." 21 Ep., 69, n. 12, ed. Hartel, II,

25 Tract, in loa., 80, n. 3: "Hoc 761: " Ncc quemquam mozwre debet

verbum fidci tantum valet in Ec- quod aspergi vcl perfundi videntur

clesia Dei, lift per ipsum . . . tingen- aegri, quum gratiam dominicam con-

MATTER AND FORM 219

Baptism by effusion was regarded as equally valid with
Baptism by immersion long before the time of St. Cy-
prian. The famous Didache (Doctrina XII Aposto-
loi'uin), rediscovered in 1883 and ascribed to the time of
the Emperor Nerva (d. 98), says : " Baptize in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, in
running water; but if thou hast no running water, bap-
tize in other water, and if thou canst not in cold, then in
wann. But if thou hast neither, pour water three times
on the head in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost (ckx^ov tts ttjv /c€<^aAr/v rpU vSwp els
ovofxa iraTpos Kou vlov kol ayiov irvevfxaTO'i^ ." ^^

c) A few observations on the history of the
various methods of administering Baptism may
prove useful.

a) During the first twelve centuries Baptism was gen-
erally administered by immersion. Three times in suc-
cession the candidate was plunged entirely in water by
the baptizing bishop or priest, assisted by deacons, or, in the
case of adult females, by deaconesses. Numerous ancient
baptisteries (fontes sacri, KokviijiyjOpai) in various parts of
the western world attest the antiquity of this custom.
The Greeks (Russians, Bulgarians, etc.) have retained
Baptism by immersion, though they no longer practice it
in its pure form, but dip the child in warm water up to

sequantur, quando Scriptiira sancta On a painting in the catacombs which

per Ezechiclem prophetam dicat: illustrates this passage cfr. De

' Aspergam super vos aquam mun- Rossi, Roma Sotteranca, Vol. I, p.

dam.' Unde apparct, aspcrsionem 334, Rome 1867. Rogers (Baptism

quoquc aquae instar salutaris lavacri and Christian Archaeology, London

obtincre." 1903) is evidently mistaken when he

28 Doctrina XII Apost., c. 7, cd. asserts that immersion is the oldest

Funk, p. 23, Tubingen 1887; Eng- form of Baptism. Cfr. Ermoni, Lc

lish tr. by Kirsopp Lake, The Apes- Baptcme dans I'Eglise Primitive,

folic Fathers in the Loeb Classical Paris 1904.
Library, pp. 320 sq., London 1912,

220 BAPTISM

the neck and then pour water over his head.-^ Despite
the complaint of Marcus Eugenicus of Ephesus, the Ori-
entals at the Council of Florence (1439) raised no ob-
jection to the Latin mode of baptizing, though to-day they
regard it as invalid.^"

Baptism by immersion was still the rule in Western
Christendom at the time of St. Thomas, for he says in
the third part of the Summa: " Although it is safer to
baptize by immersion, because this is the more ordinary
fashion, yet Baptism can be conferred by sprinkling or
also by pouring . . ." ^^

In Spain, which had been overrun by the Arian Visi-
goths, a single immersion was substituted for the three
formerly employed, in order to illustrate Catholic behef
in the unity of the Godhead in three Persons. St. Martin
of Bracara (d. 580) decried this practice as Sabellian,^-
but it was approved by Pope Gregory the Great (d. 604)
and formally prescribed by the Fourth Council of Toledo
(632).

/S) Baptism by effusion gradually came into use in
the thirteenth century, and finally replaced Baptism
by immersion entirely in the West. St. Charles Borro-
meo still prescribed the ancient form of trine im-
mersion for the churches of the Ambrosian rite, and this
form continued to be widely used in Europe up to the
sixteenth century. The reasons for the universal adop-
tion of the change probably were the difficulties arising

29 Cfr. Denzinger, Rit. Orient., 7: " Quamvis ttitius sit baptisare
Vol. I, p. 23s, 287, Wiirzburg 1863; per tnodtim immersionis, quia hoc
Goar, Euchologium s. Rituale Grae- habet communior usus, potest tamen
corum, in bapt. off. not. 24, Paris fieri baptismus per niodum asper-
1647. sionis vel ctiam per modum infu-

30 Cfr. Synod. Lat. IV, c. 4 sionis."

{1215), in Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 32 Cfr. Bardenhewer-Shahan, Pa-

435- trology, p. 659, St. Louis 1908.

31 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 66, art.

MATTER AND FORM 221

in cold countries and in regard to the immersion of
women. When Europe had become entirely Christian,
and there were no longer any adult pagans, the institute
of deaconesses ceased to exist.

The method of baptizing by aspersion has never ac-
quired practical importance, and the discussion of its
validity is therefore purely academic.^^

3. The Sacramental Form, or the Formula
OF Baptism. — The form of Baptism consists in
the words accompanying the ablution. There
are two essential parts: (i) the verbal designa-
tion of the baptismal act, and (2) the express in-
vocation of the three Persons of the Most Holy
Trinity.

The Decretiuii pro Armenis of Eugene IV
says : "The form is : 'I baptize thee in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost,' . . . because when the act is expressed,
which is performed by the minister with the invo-
cation of the Holy Trinity, the Sacrament is ac-
complished." ^^

a) The necessity of a baptismal formula is in-
dicated by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Ephesians :

33 For further information on the sein apostolischer Ursprung und

various ways of baptizing and their seine Entivickluitg, Freiburg 1903.

history the student may consult the 3* " Forma autem est: 'Ego te

treatise on " Die Entstehxing dcr baptizo in nomine Patris et Filii et

heutigcn Taufform," in Funk's Kir- Spiritus Sancti' . . .; quoniam si

chcngeschichtliche Abhandlnngen exprimitur actus, qui per ipsum ex-

und Untersucliungen,, Vol. I, ercctur ministrttm cum SS. Trinita-

pp. 478 sqq., Padcrborn 1897; tis invocatione, perficitur sacramen-

also A. Staerk, Dcr Taufritus tum." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.

in der griechisclt-russischen Kirche, 696).

222

BAPTISM

". . . cleansing it by the laver of water in the
word of Ufe." ''

The words of our Lord : "... baptizing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost," ^^ have always been understood by the Church
not merely as a command to baptize, but as embodying
the formula of Baptism. This is the unanimous teaching
of Tradition. Tertullian writes : " The law of baptizing
has been imposed, and the formula prescribed : ' Go,'
He saith, ' teach the nations,' etc." ^^ St. Cyprian says :
" Christ Himself commanded the nations to be baptized in
the full and undivided Trinity." ^^ St. Ambrose instructs
his catechumens that " Unless a man is baptized in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost, he cannot receive remission of his sins nor the gift
of spiritual grace." ^'^ St. Augustine asks: "Who is
there who does not know that there is no Baptism of
Christ, if the words of the Gospel, in which consists the
outward visible sign, are lacking? " ^° St. Basil denies the
validity of Baptism if conferred merely " in the name
of the Lord," because, he says, " as we believe in the
Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, so, too, we are
baptized in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost." " St. Chrysostom, in his explanation

35 Eph. V, 26: ". . . viundans
lavacro aquae in verba vitae."

30 Matth. XXVIII, 19: ". . . hap-
thantcs eos in nomine Patris et
Filii et Spiritus Sancti."

37 De Bapt., c. 13: " Lex tingendi
imposita est et forma praescripta:
Ite, inquit, docete nationes, etc."

38 Ep. 73 ad luhai., n. 18, ed.
Hartel, II, 791: "Ipse Christus
gcntes bapti::ari iiibet in plena et
adunata Trinitate,"

so De Myst., c. 4, n. 20: "Nisi
bapti;:atus fuerit in nomine Patris
et Filii et Spiritus Sancti, rcmis-
sioneni non potest accipere pccca-
torum nee spirittialis gratiae munus
hour ire."

40 De Bapt., VI, 25, 47- " Q»is
nesciat non esse baptismum Christi,
si verba evangelica, qiiibus sym-
bohtm constat, illic defucrint? "

41 De Spiritu Sancto, c. 12.

MATTER AND FORM 223

of Eph. V, 26, observes : " In the laver of water he
cleanses him from his impurity. In the word, he says.
In what word? In the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost." ^^

b) In connection with this subject theologians
are wont to discuss two incidental problems, viz.:
What was the meaning of Baptism "in the name
of Jesus/' of which we read in the Acts of the
Apostles? and: In how far may the prescribed
baptismal formula be altered without affecting
the validity of the Sacrament?

a) Did the Apostles baptize validly when they bap-
tized " in the name of Jesus "? ^^ Opinions dififer on this
question. Peter Lombard says : " He who baptizes in
the name of Christ, baptizes in the name of the Trinity,
which is thereby understood ; " but he cautiously adds :
*' It is, however, safer to name the Three Persons ex-
pressly." ^* The majority of theologians dissent from
this view. They hold that the Apostles employed the
formula " In the name of Jesus " by virtue of an extra-
ordinary privilege. St. Thomas says : " It was by a
special revelation from Christ that in the primitive Church
the Apostles baptized in the name of Christ, in order that
the name of Christ, which was hateful to Jews and Gen-
tiles, might become an object of veneration, in that the
Holy Ghost was given in Baptism at the invocation of that
name." '*^ Since the Tridentine Council the more general

42 Horn, in Ep. ad Eph., 20. Cfr. in nomine Trinitatis, quae ibi intel-
St. John Damascene, De Fide Ortli., ligitur. Tutius est tamen, tres per-
IV, 9. sonas ibi nominare."

43 Cfr. Gal. in, 27; Acts II, 38; ir, Sumina Theol., 3a, qu. 66, art.
VIII, 12; X, 48. 6: " Dicendum quod ex spcciali

** Sent., IV, dist. 3: "Qui ergo Christi revelatione Apostoli in pri-
baptiaal in nomine Christi, baptizat mitiva Ecclcsia in nomine Christi

224

BAPTISM

opinion ^® is that Baptism in the name of Jesus, in contra-
distinction to the " Baptism of penance " which the Pre-
cursor administered,*" received its name not from the ex-
ternal rite but from its institution by Christ; in other
words that in baptizing in the name of Christ the Apos-
tles meant to baptize by His authority. This is not a new
theory, but was held by many of the early Fathers.*®
Though the Roman Catechism *** attempts to justify the
view that " there was a time when, by the inspiration of
the Holy Ghost, the Apostles baptized in the name of our
Lord Jesus Christ only," we do not deem it prudent,
without stringent proofs, to admit such a radical distinc-
tion between the baptismal practice of Apostolic and that
of post-Apostolic times. It is true that Pope Nicholas I
(d. 867) seems to have admitted the validity of Baptism in
the name of Christ,^" but his letter to the Bulgarians, in
which he expresses this opinion, is not an ex cathedra de-
cision ; ^^ and even if it were, the fact would prove noth-
ing, because in the case of the Bulgarians the question at
issue was not the formula of Baptism but the qualifica-
tions required in the minister.^^

baptizabant, ut nomen Christi, quod
erat odiosum ludaeis et gentibus,
honorabile redderetur per hoc, quod
ad ems invocationem Spiritus Sane-
tus dabatur in baptismo." This
opinion is shared by St. Bede, Alber-
tus Magnus, St. Bonaventure,
Scotus, Cajetan, Toletus, Orsi, et al.

46 Among those who espouse this
teaching are Melchior Cano, Dom.
Soto, Cardinal Bellarmine, Suarez,
Vasquez, Tournely, and nearly all
modern theologians.

47 Cfr. Acts XIX, I sqq.

48 Among others, St. Cyprian (Ep.
73 ad lubai., n. 17, ed. Hartel, II,
791), St. Augustine (Contra Maxim.,
II, 17, i), St. Fulgentius (C.

Fabian., fragm. 37), Origen (7w Ep.
ad Rom., 1. 5; Migne, P. G., XIV,
1039), St. Basil {De Spiritu S., c,
12), St. Chrysostom (Horn, in 2
Cor., XXX, 13, 13).

49 P. II, c. 2, n. 15 sq.

50 " A quodam ludaeo , . , mul-
tos in patria vestra baptisatos as-
seritis et quid de iis sit agendum
consulitis. Hi profecto, si in no-
mine S. Trinitatis Z'cl tantum in
Christi nomine . . . baptiaati sunt,
constat eos non esse dcnuo bapti~an-
dos." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.

335)-

51 See Hergenrother's Antijanus,
p. 55, Freiburg 1869.

52 For further details on this sub-

MATTER AND FORM 225

/?) Alterations in the formula of Baptism may or may
not affect its substance. Substantial changes render the
Sacrament invalid ; purely accidental changes do not. It
would be a substantial change, for instance, to omit all
reference to the act performed, or to neglect to invoke the
Three Persons of the Trinity. Hence we may distinguish
three groups of formulas: (i) such as are certainly in-
vahd, (2) such as are undoubtedly valid, and (3) such
as are doubtful.

(i) Alexander III decided that it would render Bap-
tism invalid to omit the words : " I baptize thee," and
simply to say: " In the name of the Father," etc.^^ As
all Three Divine Persons must be expressly mentioned, it
would likewise be invalid to baptize " in the name of the
]\Iost Holy Trinity." The Montanist formula : " I baptize
thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and — of
Montanus and Priscilla," was plainly invalid. But even
when all Three Persons are expressly named, Baptism
would still be invalid if the minister would intro-
duce a phrase embodying an anti-Trinitarian heresy,^'*
e. g., " I baptize thee in the namcf of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." ^^

(2) Any baptismal formula that meets the two require-
ments mentioned, is valid, even though it show ac-
cidental variations from the approved text, as does, for
instance, the Greek formula : BttTrrt^erat 6 SouAos tov

0€o{i (6 Setvas) ets to ovo/xa tov TTarpo<i koI tov vlov koI tov

ay'iov TTvevfjiaTos, the validity of which is expressly admitted

ject cfr. Melchior Cano, De Locis Bapt.: " Si quis piieruin tcr in aqua

TheoL, VI, 8; I. A. Orsi, De mcrserit in nomine Patris et Filii et

Baptismo in Nomine lesii, Florence Spiritus Sancti, . . . et non dixerit :

1743; Heitmiiller, Im Namen Jesu, 'Ego te baptiso.' puer non est bap-

1905; H. Koch, Die Tauflehre des ticatus."

Liber de Rcbapliswate, pp. i6 sqq., C4 Tritheism, Arianism, etc.

Braunsberg 1907. 55 " Baptico te in nominibiis Patris

53 C. " Si quis," I Extrav., De et Filii et Spiritus Sancti."

226 BAPTISM

in the Decretum pro Armenis.^'^ Valid, though illicit, are
all those formulas in which some non-essential word or
phrase is either added to or omitted from the prescribed
text; e. g.: " Baptizo {abluo, tingo) te in nomine," etc.,
or: "Baptizo te credentem in nomine Patris et Filii et
Spiritus Sancti, ut habeas vitam aeternam." Alterations
made in ignorance of the language employed, and with-
out heretical intent, do not render Baptism invalid, pro-
vided that, according to popular estimation, the objective
meaning of the formula is preserved. This was decided
by Pope Zachary in a case submitted to him by St. Boni-
face, where an ignorant cleric had mispronounced the
usual formula as follows : " Ego te baptizo in nomine
patria et filia et spiritu sancta." ^^ The Slavic formula :
" Ja te krstim" {krstim derived from fer^y^ffi = make
Christian; Krst =i Christ) was approved by the Holy
See in 1894, on the ground that the verb krsti also means
to wash off.^^ This can hardly be said to apply to our
English word " christen."

(3) Doubtful, though presumably valid, are those for-
mulas in which it is difficult to decide whether the altera-
tions that have been introduced relate to essential or to
purely accidental portions, as, e. g.: " I baptize thee in the
Father, and in the Son, and in the Holy Ghost." The
formula : " I baptize thee in the name of the Father,
and in the name of the Son, and in the name of the Holy

56 " Non tamen ncgamus, quin QawTUeTai- Cfr. Goar, Euchol., p.

et per ilia verba: ' Baptisatur talis 355» Probst, Sakramente und Sa-

servus Christi in nomine Patris et kramentalien in den erstcn drci Jahr-

Filii et Spiritus Sancti/ verum per- hundcrtcn, pp. 148 sqq., Tubingen

ficiatur sacramentum." (Denzinger- 1872.

Bannwart, n. 696). The variant 57 Cfr. Mansi, Cone, t. XII, p.

" Baptisetur " in the above text is 325.

probably incorrect, because the 58 See the Innsbruck Zeitschrift

Greeks do not say ^awTi^effdM, but fUr kath, Theologie, 1901, p. 318.

MATTER AND FORM 227

Ghost," was considered doubtful by St. Alphonsus, but
on Jan. 13, 1882, the Congregation of the Holy Office de-
cided that the use of this formula does not render Baptism
invalid, because the heresy of Tritheism is not necessarily
implied therein.

SECTION 3

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS

Baptism has for its general effect the regeneration of
the soul/ and hence belongs to the " Sacraments of the
dead."

Its specific effects are three, vis.: ( i ) the grace of jus-
tification (mstificatio prima) ; (2) forgiveness of all the
penalties of sin; and (3) the sacramental character.

I. First Effect: the Grace of Justifica-
tion.— Justification comprises the remission of sin
and the sanctification of the soul. Baptism, as a
means of justification, must therefore forgive sin
and infuse sanctifying grace. Such is indeed the
defined- teaching of the Church. "If any one
denies," says the Council of Trent, "that, by the
grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, which is con-
ferred in Baptism, the guilt of original sin is re-
mitted, or even asserts that the whole of that
which has the true and proper nature of sin, is
not taken away, ... let him be anathema." ^
And in the Decretum pro Armenis Eugene IV de-

1 Cfr. Tit. Ill, s: " lavacrtim re- originalis peccati remitti negat aut
gencrationis." etiam asserit non tolli totuin id,

2 Sess. V, can. 5: "Si qiiis per quod veram et propriam peccati rati-
lesu Christi Domini nostri gratiain, onem habet, . . . anatliema sit."
quae in baptismate confertur, reatum (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 792).

228

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 229

clares : ''The effect of this Sacrament [Baptism]
is the remission of every sin, original and ac-
.. tual." ^

a) For the Scriptural proof of this dogma we
refer to our treatises on God the Author of Na-
ture and the Supernatural, pp. 238 sqq., and
Grace, Actual and Habitual, pp. 328 sqq., and also
to the general introduction to the Sacraments,
supra, pp. 188 sqq.

b) In this connection theologians are wont to
discuss several problems intimately related to sac-
ramental justification.

a) Though Baptism completely blots out the guilt of
original sin {reatns citlpae), there still^remains concu;^
piscence (fomes peccati, concupiscentia), which, however,
no longer partakes of the nature of guilt, but is merely
a consequence of original sin.* This teaching was em-
phasized by St. Augustine.^

Besides forgiving sin and producing sanctifying grace,
with all its formal effects — justice, supernatural beauty,
the friendship of God, and His adoptive sonship ^ — Bap-
tism also effects the supernatural concomitants of sanc-
ti£ying:,grace, viz.: the three7Iivine~vrffues of faith, hope,
and charity, the infused moral virtues, and the_seven
gild's" of tBe Holy Ghost, including His persbnarindwell-

3 " Huius sacramenti cHcclits est nia, prorsus omnia factorum, dicto-
remissio omnis culpac oriyinalis et rum, cogitatorum sive originalia sive
actualis." (Dcnzinger-Bannwart, n. addita [i. e. actualia] . . .; sed non
696). aufert infirmitatem [i. e. fomitem'],

4 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. V, ciii regcneratus resistit, quando bo-
can. 5. num agoncm luclaliir."

5 Contra Duas Efist. Pelag., HI, o Cfr. Pohle-Prcuss, Grace, Ac-
3: " Baptismus abluit peccata om- tual and Habitual, pp. 356 sqq.

230 BAPTISM

ing in the..&Qal^which is the „crown and climax of the
proces^of Justification/ The Fathers extol these pre-
rogatives in glowing terms. St. Gregory of Nazianzus,
e. g., says : " Baptism is the splendor of the soul, life's
amendment, the uplifting of conscience to God, a means
of getting rid of our weakness, the laying aside of the
flesh, the attainment of the spirit, the participation of the
Word, the drowning of sin, the communication of light,
the dispersion of darkness." ^

/?) The very excellence of these effects, — not to speak
of the sacramental character which Baptism imprints,^
— compels us to draw an essential distinction between
the Baptism of Christ and that administered by John the
Baptist. The existence of such a distinction is expressly
affirmed by the Tridentine Council : " If any one saith
that the Baptism of John had the same force as the Bap-
tism of Christ, let him be anathema." ^^ The Baptism of
John was merely an exhortation to do penance and to
prepare for the coming of the Messias, and consequently
cannot have had the same power as the Baptism of Christ.
This explains why St. Paul, upon meeting the twelve dis-
ciples of John at Ephesus, commanded them to be rebap-
tized in the name of Jesus before he imposed his hands
on them and called down the Holy Ghost. " John,"
he explained, " baptized the people with the Baptism of
penance, saying that they should believe in him who was
to come after him, that is to say, in Jesus." ^^ The teach-
ing of the Fathers agrees perfectly with this. We pass

7 Ibid., pp. 362 sqq. Christi, anathema sit." (Denzinger-

8 Or. de Bapt., 40, n. 4 (Migne, Bannwart, n. 857).

P. C, XXXVI, 362). 11 Acts XIX, 4: " loannes bap-

9 V. infra, No. 3, pp. 234 sqq. tisavit baptismo poenitentiae (jSott-

10 Sess. VII, De Bapt., can. i: Tiajxa /xerapoiat) populum, dicens:
"Si quis dixerit, baptismum loannis In cum qui venttirus asset post ip-
habuisse eandem vim cum baptismo sum ut crederent, hoc est in lesum."

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 231

over Tertullian/2 St. Ambrose/^ St. Chrysostom," St.
Gregory the Great/^ and others, and content ourselves
with quoting a passage from St. Augustine. " I ask,
therefore," he says in his treatise De Baptismo contra
Donatistas, " if sins were remitted by the Baptism of
John, what more could the Baptism of Christ confer on
those whom the Apostle Paul desired to be baptized with
the Baptism of Christ after they had received the Baptism
of John ? " '^^ The difference must have consisted in this
that the Baptism of John did not produce its effects ex
opere operato, but through the disposition of the recipient
{ex opere operantis), as St. Thomas explains with his
usual clearness : " The Baptism of John did not confer
grace, but only prepared for grace ; and this in three ways :
first, by John's teaching, which led men to faith in Christ,
secondly, by accustoming men to the rite of Christ's Bap-
tism ; thirdly, by penance, preparing men to receive the
effect of Christ's Baptism." ^^ In other words, " the
Baptism of John was not in itself a Sacrament, properly
so called, but a kind of sacramental, preparatory to the
Baptism of Christ." ^^

2. Second Effect: the Remission of Pun-
ishments Due to Sin. — Sin and its punishment

12 De Bapt., c. lo. pracparahal tripliciter: uno quidem

13 In Luc, c. 3. modo per doctrinam loaiDiis induccn-
li Horn, in Matth., 12, 2. tern homines ad fidem Cliristi; alio

15 Horn., I, 7, 3. modo assucfacicndo homines ad

16 De Bapt. c. Donat., V, 10: rituin baptismi Christi; tertio modo
" Quacro itaque, si baptismo loan- per pocnitcntiam pracparando bo-
nis peccata dimittebantur, quid mines ad suscipiendum affectum bap-
amplius praestare potuit baptismus tismi Christi."

Christi Us, quos Apostolus Paulus 18 Ibid., art. i, ad i: " Baptis-

post baptismum loannis Christi bap- mus loannis nan crat per se sacra-

tismo voluit baptizari? " mcntuin, scd quoddam sacramentalc

17 Suinma ThcoL, 3a, qu. 38, art. disponens ad baptismtun Christi."
3: "Baptismus loannis gratiam non Cfr. Bellarmine, De Bapt., c. 19 sqq.
conferebat, scd solum ad gratiam

232

BAPTISM

are really distinct/ '^ and the remission not only of
sin but of all the penalties due to it, is an effect
peculiar to Baptism alone. According to the con-
stant teaching of the Church, the Sacrament of
Baptism remits not only the eternal penalties of
sin, — the remission of which seems to be an es-
sential part of the forgiveness of sin itself, — but
likewise all temporal punishments, so that, were
one to die immediately after receiving Baptism,
he would go straightway to Heaven. "° "In those
who are born again," says the Council of Trent,
"there is nothing that God hates, because there
is no condemnation to those who are truly buried
together with Christ by Baptism into death ; . . .
so that there is nothing whatever to retard their
entrance into Heaven." ^^

a) This dogma cannot be conclusively proved
from Sacred Scripture,^^ but if we carefully con-
sider the language used by St. Paul in comparing
Baptism with the death and burial of our Lord,
we can hardly doubt that the Apostle means to
teach that Baptism remits not only all sins but
also all the penalties due to them. Cf r. Rom. VI,

19 This point will be dealt with in
the treatise on the Sacrament of
Penance.

20 Cfr. Decretum pro Armenis:
" Morientes, antequam culpam ali-
quant committant, statim ad regnuin
coelorum et Dei visionem perveni-
unt." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 696).

21 Sess. V, can. 5 : " In renatis
enim nihil odit Dens, quia nihil est

damnationis iis, qui vere consepulti
sunt cum Christo per baptisma in
mortem . . ., ita ut nihil prorsus eos
ah ingressu coeli remoretur."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 792).

22 The texts cited by the Triden-
tine Fathers (/. c.) do not express
the remission of the punishment of
sins as clearly as that of the sins
themselves.

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 233

4: "For we are buried together with him by
baptism into death; that as Christ is risen from
the dead by the glory of the Father, so we also
may walk in newness of life." ^^ The Roman
Catechism comments on this text as follows:
''Of Baptism alone has it been said by the Apostle,
that by it we die and are buried with Christ.
Hence holy Church has always understood that to
impose those offices of piety which are usually
called by the holy Fathers works of satisfaction,
on him who is to be purified by Baptism, cannot be
done without the gravest injury to this Sacra-
ment." -'

b) Tertullian speaks the mind of the Latin Fa-
thers when he says : "The guilt being removed,
the penalty is removed also. Thus man is re-
stored to God according to the likeness of him
[i. e. Adam] who in days gone by had been
[created] to the image of God." ^^ And St.
Athanasius expresses the universal belief of the
Greeks when he declares: "Baptism is called a
laver, because in it we wash oif our sins; it is

23 Rom. VI, 4: " Consepulti enim intellexit sine iiiiuria sacrainenti
sitmus cum illo per baptismum in fieri non posse, ut ei qui baptismo
mortem: ut qiiomodo Christus sur- expiandus sit, , . . opera satisfac-
rexit a mortuis per gloriam Patris, iionis imponantur,"

ita et nos in novitate vitae ambule- 25 De Bapt., c, s : " Exempto

mus." reatu eximitur et poena; ita restitui-

24 P. II, cap. 2, n. 44: " De solo tur homo Deo ad similitudinem cius
tamen baptismo dictum est ab Apo- qui retro ad imaginem Dei fuerat,"
stolo, nos per ipsum commori et (Migne, P. L., I, 1206).

sepeliri, ex quo s. Ecclesia semper

234 BAPTISM

called grace, because through it are remitted the
punishments due to sins." '^^

c) From this teaching Catholic theologians consistently
infer that such penalties as remain after Baptism {e. g.
sickness and death) no longer partake of the nature of
punishment, but are purely medicinal. In the technical
terminology of the Schoolmen, they are not poenae but
poenalitates.^'' This explains why no works of satisfac-
tion are imposed on adults at Baptism. True, in the
olden time the haptizandi were compelled to fast, as Ter-
tullian reminds us ; ^® but this was done only to aid them in
subduing concupiscence, to accustom them to pious prac-
tices, to obtain special graces, and for similar purposes.

By the " temporal punishments of sin " we do not, of
course, means those which a secular judge is bound by
law to inflict upon convicted offenders. Nevertheless
St. Thomas ^^ recommends Christian rulers, " for the
honor of the Sacrament," to remit capital punishment to
convicted pagans who ask for Baptism, and the Roman
Catechism repeats the recommendation.^**

3. Third Effect: the Baptismal Charac-
ter.— Like Confirmation and Holy Orders, Bap-
tism imprints in the soul of the recipient an in-
delible mark, which renders repetition impossible.
The Tridentine Council defines: 'Tf any one
saith that in the three Sacraments, to wit, Bap-
tism, Confirmation, and Order, there is not im-
printed in the soul a character, that is a certain

28 Ep. 4 ad Scrap. 29 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 69, art.

27 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa 2, ad 3.

Theol., la sae, qu. 85, art. 5. 30 Cat. Rom., P. II, cap. 2, n. 45.
2S De Bapt.. c. 20.

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 235

spiritual and indelible sign, on account of which
they cannot be repeated; let him be anathema." ^^

a) For the Scriptural argument in support of
this dogma, see supra, pp. 76 sqq.

b) From the theological point of view the fol-
lowing considerations are pertinent.

a) That Baptism cannot be repeated, is owing to the
fact that it is a rebirth of the soul ^- and in a mystic
manner exercises the same functions as Christ's death
on the cross.^^ Referring to the former, St. AugListine
observes : " The womb does not repeat its births," ^* and
with the latter analogy in mind St. Chrysostom says :
" As there is no second crucifixion for Christ, so there
can be no such a thing as rebaptism." ^^

Rebaptism has always been condemned by the Church
as sacrilegious. St, Augustine shows its intrinsic absurd-
ity by comparing it to an " impositio Christi super Chri-
stum." ^^ The older Fathers furnish plenty of material
for this argument. Clement of Alexandria, for example,
quotes the following remarkable passage from the eclogues
of Theodotus the Valentinian : " As even the dumb ani-
mals show by a mark to whom they belong, and each can
be recognized by that mark, thus the faithful soul that has
received the seal of truth ^^ bears the stigmata of

31 Sess. VII, De Sacram., can. 9: 35 Horn, in Ep. ad Hebr., 9, n.

"Si quis dixcrit, in tribus sacra- 3; "Qaireo ovv ovk eari devrepov

mentis, baptismo scit., confirmatione CTavpioOijuai rhv Xpiffrov, oCrws

et ordine non imprimi charactcrcm oiide devrepov ^aTmffdijvai-

in anima, h. e. signum guoddam 30 In Ps., 39, n. i : " Baptismus

spirituale et indelebile. unde ea reite- ille tamquam character infixus est:

rari non possunt, anathema sit." ornabat militem, comiticit dcserto-

(Dcnzinger-Bannwart, n. 852). rem. Quid cnim facis [rcbapticans]?

82 Cfr. John III, 5; Tit. Ill, 5. Christum imponis super Christum."

83 Cfr. Rom. VI, i sqq. (Mignc, P. L., XXXVI, 433).

84 Tract, in loa., 11: " Uterus 37 7-i t^s d\r)Oeias ff<ppdyiana-
non partus repetit."

236 BAPTISM

Qirist." ^^ St. Basil eulogizes the Sacrament as follows :
" Baptism is the ransom paid for prisoners, the remission
of debts, the death of sin, the rebirth of the soul, a shining
garment, an indelible seal,^^ a vehicle [to convey men]
to Heaven, a medium of the kingdom [of God] , a free gift
of sonship." "'*'

/?) The general purpose of the sacramental
character has been sufficiently explained supra,
pp. 88 sqq. In addition to what we have said
there, we will briefly comment on what may be
termed the secondary effects of the baptismal
character.

In the first place the baptismal character, as a signum
configurativiim, incorporates the recipient into Christ's
own family, bestows upon him the Saviour's coat-of-arms,
and thus renders him a Christian, i. e. one who is like
unto Christ. Cf r. Gal. Ill, 27 : " As many of you as
have been baptized in Christ, have put on Christ." ''^

By Baptism, furthermore, one becomes a member of
our Lord's " mystic body," i. e. the true Church. " Bap-
tism," says the Decretum pro Armenis, " is the door to the
spiritual life, for by it we are made members of Christ and
[part] of the body of the Church." *- This is but another
way of expressing St. Paul's thought, i Cor. XII, 13, 27:
" We were all baptized into one body. . . . Now you are

38 Migne, P. G., IX, 698. enim in Christo haptizati estis,

39 ff(ppayts dvenixeipriTOS- Christum induistis."

40 Honi. de Bapt., 13, n. 5 (Migne, 42 " Primum omnium sacramen-
P. G., XXXI, 434). For a specula- torum locum tenet s. baptisma, quod
tive discussion of the baptismal char- vitae spiritualis ianua est; per ip-
acter, v. supra, pp. 84 sqq. sum enim membra Christi ac de

41 Gal. Ill, 27: " Quicunque corpore efUcimur Ecclesiae." (Den-

zinger-Bannwart, n. 696).

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS 237

[together] the body of Christ, and severally his mem-
bers." *^ In this respect the baptismal character is a
signum distinctivum, marking off those who are baptized
from those who are not. Only the former are " mem-
bers " of the corpus Ecclesiae, while the latter may at
most belong to the anima Ecclesiae.

By making them members of the Church, the baptismal
character, as a signum obligativum, subjects all baptized
Christians to her jurisdiction, obliges them to keep their
baptismal vow and to observe the ecclesiastical precepts.
In return, it guarantees them the graces they require
for their respective state of life *^ as well as all the bene-
fists, privileges, and means of sanctification which the
Church is pleased to bestow upon her children, particu-
larly the right to receive the other Sacraments.

43 I Cor. XII, 13, 27: " Omnes 44 Cfr, St. Thomas, Summa

nos in unum corpus baptisati sumns ThcoL, 3a, qu. 69, art. 5.

. . . Vos autem estis corpus Christi 45 St. Thomas, Comment, in Sent.,

et membra de membro." (We use IV, dist. 24, qu. i : " Qui charac-

the Westminster Version). Cfr. J. terem baptismalem non Iiabet, nul-

MacRory, The Epistles of St. Paul lum alterum sacramentum suscipere

to the Corinthians, Dublin 1915, pp. potest." — On the character as a

192 sq. signum dispositivum, v. supra, pp.

93 sq.

CHAPTER II

THE NECESSITY OF BAPTISM

Baptism is necessary for salvation, but, under
certain conditions, the place of Baptism by water
(bapfismus Uuminis) may be supplied by Baptism
of desire (baptisnius ftaminis) or by Baptism of
blood {baptisnius sanguinis). We shall explain
the Catholic teaching on this point in three theses.

Thesis I: Baptism is necessary for salvation.

This proposition embodies an article of faith.

Proof. We have, in a previous treatise,^ dis-
tinguished between two kinds of necessity: ne-
cessity of means (necessitas medii) and necessity
of precept {necessitas praecepti).

Since Baptism is necessary for infants no less than
for adults, it follows that all men need it as a means of
salvation {necessitas medii), and that for adults it is also
of precept {necessitas praecepti). However, since the
Baptism of water may sometimes be supplied by the Bap-
tism of desire or the Baptism of blood, Baptism of water
is not absolutely necessary as a means of salvation but
merely in a hypothetical way. That Baptism is necessary
for salvation is an expressly defined dogma, for the Coun-
cil of Trent declares: " If any one saith that Baptism is

1 Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, pp. 281 sqq.

238

NECESSITY 239

free, that is, not necessary unto salvation, let him be anath-

ema." ^

a) This can be conclusively proved from Holy
Scripture. Our Lord's command: "Teach ye
all nations, baptizing them," ^ plainly imposes on
all men the duty to receive Baptism, as is
evidenced by a parallel passage in St. Mark:
"Go ye into the whole world, and preach the Gos-
pel to every creature ; he that believeth and is bap-
tized, shall be saved: but he that believeth not
shall be condemned." ^ Here we have Christ's
plain and express declaration that while unbelief
is sufficient to incur damnation, faith does not
ensure salvation unless it is accompanied by Bap-
tism.

That Baptism is necessary as a means of salva-
tion (necessitate medii) follows from John HI,
5 : "Unless a man be born again ^ of water and
the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom
of heaven." Spiritual regeneration is more than
a mere keeping of the Commandments; it in-
volves a complete transformation of the soul. As
no one can come into this world without being
born, so no one can enter Heaven unless he is
supernaturally reborn. Hence Baptism is, ordi-
narily, a necessary means of salvation."

2 Sess. VII, De Bapt., can. 5: 3 Matth. XXVIII, 19.

" ^t quis dixerit, baptismum liberum * Mark XVI, 15 sq.

esse, hoc est non necessarium ad 6 iav /xri tis yevpTjOfj.

salutem, anathema sit." (Den- C V. Theses II and III, infra.
zinger-Bannwart, n. 861).

240

BAPTISM

b) This teaching is upheld by Tradition.

The African bishops assembled at the Council of
Carthage (416), in a letter to Innocent I, complain of the
cruelty of the Pelagians, who condemn their children to
eternal death by refusing them Baptism/

Tertullian writes : " The precept is laid down that
without Baptism salvation is attainable by none, chiefly
on the ground of that declaration of the Lord, who says :
Unless a man be born of water, he hath not eternal life." ^

St. Basil, at a somewhat later date, says : " If you
have not passed through the water, you will not be freed
from the cruel tyranny of the devil." ^

This belief of the primitive Church was embodied, as it
were, in the catechumenate, an institution which lasted
well into the Middle Ages. " Catechnmcni " ^^ was
a name applied to adults who were under instruction with
a view to receiving Baptism. Until recently they were
believed to have been divided into three classes, viz.:
audientes (aKpow/xevoi) ; gennHectentes {yow K\ivovTt<i) ;
and competentes (</)WTt^d/i,evot). This theory was based
upon a misunderstood canon of a council of Neocaesarea
(between 314 and 325). Other theologians thought that
there were two classes, catechumeni and competentes or
electi. But this distinction is equally untenable, because
St. Cyril of Jerusalem and other Fathers number the

7 " Parvulos etiam bapticandos
negant ac sic eos mortifera ista doc-
trina in aeternum necant."

s De Bapt., c. 12: " Praescribitur
neinini sine baptismo competere salu-
tem ex ilia maxtme pronuntiatione
Domini, qui ait: Nisi natus quis ex
aqua fucrit, non habet vitam aeter-
nam."

0 Horn, in Bapt., n. 2. — Cfr. A.
Seitz, Die Hcihnotwendigkeit der

Kirchc nach der altchristlichen Li-
teratur bis sur Zeit des hi. Augti-
stinus, pp. 280 sqq., Freiburg 1903.
On Infant Baptism, v. infra, Ch.
IV, Sect. 2, pp. 268 sqq.

10 KaT7;xoi^Mf''0'> from KaTTJxeiv,
to instruct orally. On the catechu-
menate see T. B. Scannell, j. z:
" Catechumen," in Vol. Ill of the
Catholic Encyclopedia.

NECESSITY 241

competentes, or candidates for Baptism, among the faith-
ful (fideles, raaroi). To the late Professor Funk belongs
the credit of having shown that the catechumens were all
in one class. ^^ But even though we now discard the
three (or two) stages of preparation, this does not
alter the fact that the ecclesiastical authorities were at
great pains properly to instruct converts, so as to make
them well-informed and loyal Catholics. The catechu-
mens had to pass seven consecutive examinations {septem
scrutinia) before they were admitted to Baptism. Be-
sides, for a whole week after Baptism they wore white
garments, which they put off on Low Sunday (Dominica
in albis, scil. deponendis). Had not the Qiurch been so
firmly convinced of the importance and necessity of Bap-
tism, she would certainly not have surrounded this Sac-
rament with so many imposing ceremonies nor spent so
much time and labor in preparing candidates for its re-
ception. The very existence of the catechumenate in the
primitive Church proves that Baptism was always re-
garded as a matter of spiritual life and death. ^-

c) It is a moot question among theologians at
what time Baptism became a necessary means of
salvation.

Even if it were true, as some older writers hold, that
express belief in the Messias and the Trinity was a neces-
sary condition of salvation already in the Old Testament,
Baptism certainly was not, either as a means or in con-

11 F. X. Funk, Kirchengeschichtli- Kemptcn 1868; P. Gobel, Geschichte
che Abhandlungen und Utitcrsit- dcr Katechese im Abendlande vom
chiingen, Vol. I, pp. 209 sqq., Pader- Verfalle des Katechumenatcs bis :um
born 1897. Ende des Mittclaltcrs, Kemptcn

12 Cfr. J. Mayer. Geschichte des 1880; T. B. Scannell in the Calhulic
Katechumenatcs und dcr Katcchrse Encyclopedia, I.e.

in den crstcn sechs Jahrhunderten,

242 BAPTISM

sequence of a positive precept.^^ For those living under
the New Law the necessity of Baptism, according to the
Tridentine Council/* began with " the promulgation of
the Gospel." When was the Gospel promulgated ? Was
it promulgated for all nations on the day of our Lord's
Ascension, or did its precepts go into effect only when they
were actually preached to each? Were we to adopt the
latter assumption, we should have to admit that the neces-
sity of Baptism, and consequently the duty of receiving
the Sacrament, was limited both with regard to time and
place, e. g. that the law did not go into effect in Palestine
until the Gospel had been sufficiently promulgated through-
out that country, which required some thiry years or more.
To be entirely consistent we should have to admit further
that Baptism did not become necessary for salvation in
the farther parts of the Roman Empire until about the
close of the third century, in the Western hemisphere un-
til the sixteenth century, in Central Africa or the Congo
Free State until the beginning of the twentieth. This
would practically mean that millions of pagans after the
time of Christ were in precisely the same position as the
entire human race before the atonement, and that their
children could be saved by a mere " Sacrament of na-
ture." ^^ Though this way of reasoning appears quite
legitimate in the light of the Tridentine declaration, it is
open to serious theological objections. In the first place,
we must not arbitrarily hmit the validity of our Saviour's
baptismal mandate. Secondly, we cannot assume that for
more than a thousand years the children of pagan na-

13 On the justification of adults post Evangelium promulgatum sine
and children under the Old Testa- lavacro regenerationis ant eins voto
ment and among the pre-Christian fieri non potest." (Denzinger-Bann-
Gentiles, v. supna, p. 19 sqq. wart, n. 796).

14 Sess. VI, cap. 4: "... quae 15 V. supra, p. 18 sqq.
quidem translatio [i. e. iustificatio'i

NECESSITY 243

tions were better off in the matter of salvation than in-
numerable infants of Christian parentage, who were un-
able to avail themselves of the " Sacrament of nature."
Third, the assumption under review practically renders
illusory the necessity of Baptism through a period ex-
tending over many centuries. To obviate these difficul-
ties we prefer the more probable opinion that the law mak-
ing Baptism necessary for salvation was promulgated on
Ascension day or, if you will, on Pentecost, simultaneously
for the whole world, and at once became binding upon all
nations.^^

Thesis II: In adults the place of Baptism by
water can be supplied in case of urgent necessity by
the so-called Baptism of desire.

This proposition may be qualified as "doctrina
catholica."

Proof. The Baptism of desire (baptismus
Haminis) differs from the Baptism of water
{baptismus Huminis) in the same way in which
spiritual differs from actual Communion. If the
desire for Baptism is accompanied by perfect con-
trition, we have the so-called baptismtis Haminis,
which forthwith justifies the sinner, provided, of
course, that the desire is a true votum sacramenti,
i. e., that it implies a firm resolve to receive the
Sacrament as soon as opportunity offers.

The Tridentine Council pronounces anathema
against those who assert "that the Sacraments
of the New Law are not necessary for salva-

16 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Bapt., c. opinion (Compendium Theol. Dog-
s', Billuart, De Bapt.. dissert, i, art. viat., Vol. HI, 12th ed., n. 317,
2, § 2. H, Hurler holds a different Innsbruck 1909).

244 BAPTISM

tion, but superfluous, and that without them, or
without the desire thereof, men obtain of God
through faith alone the grace of justification." ^^

At a later date the Holy See formally condemned a
proposition extracted from the writings of Bajus, which
says that " Perfect and sincere charity can exist both in
catechumens and in penitents without the remission of
sins." ^^ Hence the Church teaches that perfect charity
does remit sin, even in catechumens or in penitents, i. e.
before the reception of the Sacrament, yet not without
the Sacrament, as we have seen in Thesis L Nothing
remains, therefore, than to say that the remission of sins
through perfect charity is due to the fact that such char-
ity imphes the desire of the Sacrament, hideed the only
Sacraments here concerned are Baptism and Penance.
The Council of Trent ^"^ explains that primal justification
(from original sin) is impossible without the laver of re-
generation or the desire thereof, and^° that forgiveness
of personal sin must not be expected from perfect charity
without at least the desire of the Sacrament of Penance.

a) That perfect contrition effects immediate
justification is apparent from the case of David,^^
that of Zachaeus,^^ and our Lord's own words to
one of the robbers crucified with Him on Cal-

17 Sess. VII, De Sacram., can. 4: menis quam in poenitentibus potest
" Si quis dixerit, sacramenta Novae esse sine remissione peccatorum."
Legis nan esse ad salntem ncces- (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1031).
saria, sed superfiua, et sine eis aut 19 Sess. VI, cap. 4. (Note 14,
eorum veto per solani fidem homines p. 242, supra).

a Deo gratiam iustificationis adi- 20 Sess. XIV, cap. 4. Cfr. the

pisci, . . . anathema sit." (Den- dogmatic treatise on the Sacrament

zinger-Bannwart, n. 847). of Tenance.

18 Prop. 31: " Caritas perfccta 21 Cfr. Ps. 50.

et sincera . . . tarn in catechu- 22 Cfr. Luke XIX, 9.

NECESSITY 245

vary : 'This day thou shalt be with me in para-
dise." ^^

The Prophet Ezechiel assured the Old Testament
Jews in the name of Jehovah : " If the wicked do pen-
ance for all his sins, ... he shall live, and shall not
die." '* In the New Testament our Lord Himself says of
the penitent Magdalen : " Many sins are forgiven her,
because she hath loved much." ^^ Since, however, God
has ordained Baptism as a necessary means of salva-
tion,-^ perfect contrition, in order to forgive sins, must
include the desire of the Sacrament. Cfr. John XIV, 23 :
" If any one love me, he will keep my word, and my
Father will love him, and we will come to him, and will
make our abode with him." ^^

b) According to primitive Tradition, the Bap-
tism of desire, when based on charity, effects jus-
tification, though not without some ideal relation
to the Baptism of water.

The anonymous author of the treatise De Rebaptismate,
which was composed about 256 against the practice cham-
pioned by St. Cyprian,^** calls attention to the fact that
the centurion Cornelius and his family were justified
without the Sacrament,^'* and adds : " No doubt men can
be baptized without water, in the Holy Ghost, as you ob-
serve that these were baptized, before they were baptized

23 Luke XXIII, 43. 20 F. supra, Thesis I.

24 Ez. XVIII, 21: " Si autem iin- 27 Other Scriptural texts in our
pius egerit poenitentiam ab otnni- treatise on the Sacrament of Pen-
bus peccatis stiis, . . . vitd vivct et ance.

non morietur." 28 This treatise was perhaps writ-

25 Luc. VII, 47: " Rcmtttiintur ten by Bishop Ursinus (cfr. Gen-
ei pcccata multa, quoniam dilexit natl., Dc I'ir. Ilhistr., c. 27).
multum." 29 Acts X, 44 sqq.

246

BAPTISM

with water, . . . since they received the grace of the New
Covenant before the bath, which they reached later." ^^

The most striking Patristic pronouncement on the sub-
ject is found in St. Ambrose's sermon on the death of the
Emperor Valentinian II, who had died as a catechu-
men. " I hear you express grief," he says, " because
he [Valentinian] did not receive the Sacrament of Bap-
tism. Tell me, what else is there in us except the will
and petition ? But he had long desired to be initiated be-
fore he came to Italy, and expressed his intention to be
baptized by me as soon as possible, and it was for this
reason, more than for any other, that he hastened to me.
Has he not, therefore, the grace which he desired? Has
he not received that for which he asked ? Surely, he re-
ceived [it] because he asked [for it]."^^

St. Augustine repeatedly speaks of the power inherent
in the desire for Baptism. " I do not hesitate," he says
in his treatise De Baptismo against the Donatists, "to
place the Catholic catechumen, who is burning with the
love of God, before the baptized heretic. . . . The
centurion Cornelius, before Baptism, was better than
Simon [Magus], who had been baptized. For Cornelius,
even before Baptism, was filled with the Holy Ghost, while
Simon, after Baptism, was puifed up with an unclean
spirit." ^^ A seemingly contradictory passage occurs in

30 " Atque hoc lion erit duhium,
in Spiritu Sancto homines posse sine
aqua baptisari, sicut animadvertis
haptisatos hos, priusquam aqua bap-
tisarentur, . . . qua )i do quid em sine
lavacro, quod postca adepti sunt, gra-
tiam repromissionis acceperint."
(Migne, P. L., Ill, 1889).

SI De Obitu Valent., n. 51 sq. :
" Audio vos dolere Quod non ac-
ceperit sacrament a baplismatis.
Dicite mihi, quid aliud in nobis est

nisi voluntas, nisi petitio? Alqui
etiam dudum hoc voti habuit, ut et
antequam in Italiam venisset initi-
arctur, et proxime baptizari se a me
velle significavit, et idea prae ceteris
causis me accersendum putavit.
Non habet ergo gratiam quam desi-
dcravit? Non habet quam poposcit?
Certe quia poposcit, accepit."

32 De Bapt. c. Donat., IV, 21:
" Ncc ergo dubito, catecliumenum
catholicum divina caritate ilagrantem

NECESSITY 247

the same author's Homilies on the Gospel of St. John.
" No matter what progress a catechumen may make,"
it reads, " he still carries the burden of iniquity, which
is not taken away until he has been baptized." ^^ The
two Augustinian passages quoted can, however, be easily
reconciled. The command to receive the Baptism of water
exists also for the catechumens and ceases to be binding
only when there is an impossibility. " I find," says the
same author, " that not only martyrdom for the sake of
Christ may supply what was wanting of Baptism, but also
faith and conversion of heart, if recourse can not be had to
the celebration of the mystery of Baptism for want of
time." ^* St. Bernard invokes the authority of SS. Am-
brose and Augustine in support of his teaching that a
man may be saved by the Baptism of desire if death or
some other insuperable obstacle prevents him from receiv-
ing the Baptism of water.^^ The Popes decided many
practical cases of conscience by this rule. Thus Innocent
III unhesitatingly declared that a certain deceased priest,
who had never been baptized, had undoubtedly obtained
forgiveness of original sin and reached Heaven, and that
the sacrifice of the Mass should be offered up for the re-
pose of his soul.^"

haeretico baptisato anteponere. . . . posse supplere, sed etiam fidem con-

Melior est enim centurio Cornelius vcrsionemqiie cordis, si forte ad cele-

nondiim baptisatus Simone [Mago] brandum mysterium in angustiis

bapticato; iste enim et ante baptis- temporum succiirri non potest."

mum S. Spiritu impletus est, ille et 35 E p. 77 ad Hug. Vict., n. 8:

post baptismum immundo spiritu " Ab his duabus columnis diflicile

impletus est." (Migne, P. L., avellor; cum his, inquam, aut errarc

XLIII, 171). aut sapere me fateor, credens et

33 Tract, in loa., 13, n. 7: ipse sold fide [i. e. formata] posse

" Quantumcunque catecliumenus hominem salvari cum desiderio per-

proficiat, adhuc sarcinam iniquitatis cipicndi sacramentum, si tamen pio

portat; non ilia dimittitur, nisi quum implcndi desiderio mors anticipans

venerit ad baptismum." seu alia quaecumque vis invincibilis

Si De Bapt. c. Donat., IV, 22: obviavcrit." (Migne, Patr. Lat.,

" Invenio, non tantum passionem pro CLXXXII, 1036).

Christo id quod ex baptismo deerat 30 3 Decret., tit. 13, c. 2: " Pres-

248

BAPTISM

The question whether the votum baptismi accompany-
ing perfect contrition must be explicit, is to be de-
cided in the same way as the parallel problem whether
pagans, in order to be justified, must have an express be-
lief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, or whether an
implicit belief in these mysteries is sufficient.^^ The more
common opinion holds that the votum implicitum is all
that is required. This " implicit desire " may be defined
as " a state of mind in which a man would ardently long
for Baptism if he knew that it is necessary for salva-
tion." 38

Thesis III : Martyrdom (baptismus sanguinis) can
also supply the place of Baptism.

Though the Church has never formally pro-
nounced on the subject, the teaching of Scrip-
ture and Tradition is sufficiently clear to en-
able us to regard this thesis as "doctrina certa."

Proof. The Baptism of blood, or martyrdom,
is the patient endurance of death, or of extreme
violence apt to cause death, for the sake of Jesus
Christ.

The theological concept of martyrdom (fxaprv?, a wit-
ness) includes three separate and distinct elements, vis.:

byterum qucm sine iinda baptismatis
diem clausisse significasti, quia in
sanctae matris ecclesiae fide et Chri-
sti nominis confessione persevera-
verit, ah originali peccato solutum et
coelestis patriae gaudium esse adep-
turn asserimus incunctantcr."

37 On this question cfr. Pohle-

Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual,
pp. 182 sqq.

38 Oswald, Die Lehre von den hi.
Sakrainenten der kath. Kirche, Vol.
I, 5th ed., p. 211. Cfr. A. Seitz,
Die Heilsnotivendigkeit der Kirche
nach der altclirisflichen Literatur bis
zur Zeit dcs hi. Augustinus, pp. 290
sqq., Freiburg 1903.

NECESSITY 249

(i) Violent death or extremely cruel treatment which
would naturally cause death, irrespective of whether the
victim actually dies or is saved by a miracle, as was St.
John the Evangelist when he escaped unharmed from the
cauldron of boiling oil into which he had been thrown by
order of the Emperor Domitian. (2) The endurance of
death or violence for the sake of Christ, i. e. for the Cath-
olic faith or for the practice of any supernatural virtue.
Hence the so-called " martyrs " of revolution or heresy
are not martyrs in the theological sense of the term. (3)
Patient suffering, endured voluntarily and without resist-
ance. This excludes soldiers who fall in battle, even
though they fight in defence of the faith.^^

Since martyrdom effects justification in infants as well
as adults, its efficacy must be conceived after the man-
ner of an opus operatiim, and in adults presupposes a
moral preparation or disposition, consisting mainly of
faith accompanied by imperfect contrition.*" It does not,
however, require perfect contrition, else there would be
no essential distinction between Baptism of blood and
Baptism of desire.*^

a) The supernatural efificacy of martyrdom
may be deduced from our Lord's declaration in
the Gospel of St. Matthew: "Every one that shall
confess me before men, I will also confess him be-
fore my Father who is in Heaven," ^^ and: "He
that findeth his life, shall lose it; and he that shall
lose his life for me, shall find it." ^^ If a man
gives up his life for Jesus, he will surely be re-

30 Cfr. Benedict XIV, De Serv. 41 V. supra. Thesis II.

Dei Beatif., Ill, ii. 42 Matth. X, 32.

40 Cfr. Cone. Trid., Sess. XIV, 43 Matth. X, 39. Cfr. Matth.

cap. 7 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 897). XVI, 25; Luke IX, 24; XVII, 23.

250

BAPTISM

warded. ''Greater love than this no man hath,
that a man lay down his life for his friends." ^'^
Consequently, martyrdom must be regarded as
equivalent to Baptism for the unbaptized, and as a
means of justification for the baptized.

b) The ancient Church explicitly interpreted
Christ's teaching in this sense, as is evident from
the honors she paid to the martyrs.

Tertullian says : " We have, indeed, likewise a second
font, itself one [with the former], of blood to wit. . . .
This is the Baptism which both stands in lieu of the fontal
bathing when that has not been received, and restores it
when lost." *^ St. Cyprian declares that the catechumens
who suffer martyrdom for Christ's sake, go to Heaven.
" Let them know . . . that the catechumens are not de-
prived of Baptism, since they are baptized with the most
glorious and supreme Baptism of blood." ^"^ St. Augus-
tine expresses himself in a similar manner: "To all
those who die confessing Christ, even though they
have not received the laver of regeneration, [martyrdom]
will prove as effective for the remission of sins as if they
were washed in the baptismal font." ^''

The Greek Church held the same belief. St. Cyril of
Jerusalem writes: " If a man does not receive Baptism,
he hath not salvation, the martyrs alone excepted, who

44 John XV, 13.

45 De Bapt., c. 16: "Est quidem
nobis etiam secundum lavaci-um,
unum et ipsum, sanguinis scil. . . .
Hie est baptismus, qui lavacrum et
non acceptum repraesentat et perdi-
tiim reddif."

i6 Ep. 73 ad lubaian., n. 21, ed,
Hartel, H, 735: " Sciant . . .
catechwnenos , . . non privari bap-

tismi Sacramento, utpote qui bap-
tizentur gloriosissimo et maxima
sanguinis baptismo."

47 De Civ. Dei, XIH, 7 : " Qui-
cumque etiam non rccepto regenera-
tionis lavacro pro Christi confessione
moriuntiir, tantum eis valet ad di-
mitienda peccata, quantum si ablue-
rentur fonte baptismatis."

NECESSITY 251

attain to Heaven without water." *^ And St. Chrysos-
tom : " As those baptized in water, so also those who
suffer martyrdom, are washed clean, [the latter] in their
own blood." ^''

The primitive Church venerated in a special manner
all those who suffered martyrdom for the faith, the un-
baptized as well as the baptized. Among the earliest
martyrs to whom public honors were paid, are St. Emer-
entiana, a foster-sister of St. Agues, and the Holy Inno-
cents, of whom St. Cyprian,^° following St. Irenaeus,^^
says that though they were too young tO' fight for Christ,
they were old enough to gain the crown of martyrdom.

c) The Baptism of blood is more perfect than
the Baptism of desire, and, in a certain sense, even
excels Baptism by water.

a) It is more perfect than the Baptism of desire, both
in essence and effect, because it justifies infants as well as
adults quasi ex opere operato, whereas the Baptism of de-
sire is efficacious ex opere operantis, and in adults, only.
Martyrdom, however, is not a Sacrament because it is no
ecclesiastical rite and has not been instituted as an ordi-
nary means of grace. It is superior to the Baptism of
desire in this respect, that, like ordinary Baptism, it not
only forgives sins and sanctifies the sinner, but remits
all temporal punishments. St. Augustine says : " It
would be an affront to pray for a martyr; we should
[rather] commend ourselves to his prayers." ^- Hence

48 Catcch., 3, n. 10 (Migne, P. G., necdinn habilis ad pugnam idonea
XXXni, 439). exstitil ad coronam."

49 Horn, in Martyr. Ltician., n. 2 51 Adv. Haercs., Ill, 16, 4. On
(Migne, P. C, L, 522). Other ap- the veneration of the martyrs in the
posite texts in Seitz, Die Hcilsnot- early Church cfr. Pohle-Preuss,
wendtgkeit der Kirche, pp. 287 sqq. Mariology, pp. 144 sqq., 150.

00 £p. 56 ad Thibarit.: " Aetas 52 Serm., 159, c. i: " Jniuria est

252

BAPTISM

the famous dictum of Pope Innocent III: "He who
prays for a martyr insults him." ^^ St. Thomas
teaches : " Suffering endured for Christ's sake . . .
cleanses [the soul] of all guilt, both venial and mortal,
unless the will be found actually attached to sin." °*

/8) Martyrdom is inferior to Baptism in so far as it is
not a Sacrament, and consequently neither imprints a
character nor confers the right of receiving the other
Sacraments. It excels Baptism in that it not only remits
all sins, together with the temporal punishments due to
them, but likewise confers the so-called aureole.^^ It is
superior to Baptism also in this that it more perfectly
represents the passion and death of Christ. Cfr. Mark
X, 38 : " Can you drink of the chalice that I drink
of, or be baptized with the baptism wherewith I am
baptized?" — "Let him who is deemed worthy of mar-
tyrdom," say the Apostolic Constitutions,^'' " rejoice in
the Lord for obtaining such a great crown. . . . Though
he be a catechumen, let him depart without sadness ; for
the suffering he endures for Christ will be to him more
effective than Baptism." ^'' St. Bonaventure explains this
as follows: "The reason why [martyrdom] has greater
efficacy is that in the Baptism of blood there is an
ampler and a fuller imitation and profession of the Pas-
sion of Christ than in the Baptism of water. ... In the

pro martyr e orare, cuius nos dcbc-
mus orationibus commendari."

53 " Iniuriam facit martyri, qui
oral pro eo." Cap. " Cum Marthae,"
De Celebr. Missac.

54 Sunima TheoL, 3a, qu. 87, art.
I, ad 2: " Passio pro Christo sus-
cepta . . . purgat ab omni culpa ct
veniali et mortali, nisi actualiter vo-
luntatem peccato invenerit inhaeren-
tem."

55 See Eschatology. On the three-

fold aureola (martyrum, virgi-
nuin, doctorum) v. St. Thomas,
Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 96.

50 Probably composed in the be-
ginning of the fourth century.

^t Const. Apost., V, 6: "Qui
martyrio digitus est habitus, laetitia
in Domino efferatur, quod tantam
coronani nactus fuerit. . . . Quam-
vis catechumenus sit, sine tristitia
excedat : passio enim pro Christo
per lata erit ei sincerior baptismus."

NECESSITY

253

Baptism of water death is signified; in the Baptism of
blood it is incurred." ^^

58 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist. 4,
p. 2, art. I, qu. 2, ad 2: "Ratio
autem quarc cMcaciam habef ma-
iorem est, quoniam in haptismo san-
guinis amplior et plenior est imita-
tio et professio passionis Christi

quani in baptismo aquae. , , . In
haptismo aquae mors significatur , hie
autem suscipitur." For a fuller
treatment of this topic cfr. Gihr,
Die hi. Sakramente der kath. Kirche,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 271 sqq.

CHAPTER III

THE MINISTER OF BAPTISM

Catholic theology makes a distinction between
solemn Baptism (baptismus solemnis) and private
Baptism, which is also called Baptism of neces-
sity (baptismus necessitatis). Any one can ad-
minister private Baptism, whereas solemn Bap-
tism requires a specially qualified minister. The
ordinary minister {minister or dinarius) of solemn
Baptism is the bishop or priest. A deacon
may administer the Sacrament solemnly only
with the express permission of a bishop or priest,
and consequently is called the extraordinary
minister {minister extraor dinarius) of the Sacra-
ment.

254

SECTION I

THE MINISTER OF SOLEMN BAPTISM

I. The Ordinary Minister of Solemn Bap-
tism.— Baptism is called solemn when it is admin-
istered with all the prescribed ecclesiastical cere-
monies. These ceremonies are not essential to
the validity of the Sacrament and are omitted
when it is conferred privately.^

The ordinary minister of solemn Baptism is any
validly ordained priest, who has the requisite ec-
clesiastical jurisdiction, that is to say, the bishop
or any pastor or other priest duly authorized by
either bishop or pastor to administer the Sac-
rament. *The [ordinary] minister of this Sac-
rament [Baptism]," says the Decretwn pro Ar-
menis, ''is the priest, to whose office it belongs to
baptize." ^

a) Our Lord's official mandate to baptize all
nations ^ was addressed to the Apostles and their
successors, i. e. the bishops, who, in turn, gave it

1 On the ceremonies of solemn 2 " Minister [ordinariusi huius

Baptism cfr. Bcllarmine, De Bapt., sacramenti est sacerdos, ciii ex of-

c. 24-27; Chr. Pescli, Praelect. Dog- ficio competit baptisare." (Den-

mat,, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 212 sqq., zinger-Bannwart, n. 696).

Freiburg 1908; N. Gihr, Die hi. Sa- 3 Matth. XXVIII, 19.
kramente der kath. Kirche, Vol. I,
2nd ed., §39, Freiburg 1902.

255

256 BAPTISM

to others when it became impossible for them to
be the sole ministers of the Sacrament. Cfr. i
Cor. I, 17: "Christ hath not sent me to baptize,
but to preach the gospel." ^ St. Peter did not him-
self baptize Cornelius and his family, but "com-
manded them to be baptized." ^ From which it
may be seen that Holy Scripture, to say the least,
is not averse to the ministerium ordinarium of the
priesthood in respect of Baptism.

b) In the early days the solemn administration of Bap-
tism usually took place at Easter or Pentecost, and was
regarded as the exclusive prerogative of the bishop.®
When Christianity gradually spread to the rural dis-
tricts, and the dioceses increased in size, simple priests
were permitted to confer Baptism by virtue of their
office, and the administration of this Sacrament became
a prerogative of the pastors. Tertullian says : "Of giv-
ing Baptism, the chief priest, who is the bishop, has the
right; in the next place the presbyters and deacons, not
however, without the bishop's authority, on account of
the honor of the Church." ^ St. Thomas states the rea-
son for this as follows : " Just as it belongs to a priest
to consecrate the Eucharist, ... so it is tlie proper of-
fice of a priest to baptizej^ince it seems to belong to one

4 I Cor. I, 17: " Non enim niisit itis erat circa baptizandos solus im-

me Christus baptizare, sed evangeli- plcre, quinque postca cpiscopi vii

sare." implerent."

5"Iussit baptisari." (Acts X, 1 De Bapt., c. 17: " Dandi qui-

48). dem baptismum habct ius stunmus

0 The biographer of St. Ambrose, sacerdos, qui est episcopus; dehinc

Paulinus, says of him {De l-'ita S. presbyteri ct diaconi, non tamen sine

Ambros., apud Migne, P. L., XIV, episcopi auctoritate propter Eccle-

27 sqq.) : "Erat in rebus divinis siae honorem,"
implendis fortissimus, ul quod soli-

MINISTER 257

and the same person to produce the whole and to arrange
the part in the whole." ®

2. The Extraordinary Minister of Solemn
Baptism. — The extraordinary ministry of the
deacon in regard to Baptism comprises two essen-
tial elements: (a) the right to administer solemn
Baptism, which is never granted to laymen, nor
to clerics in minor orders; and (b) the special
permission of bishop or pastor, given for an im-
portant reason.

The right (a) is required to establish the order of the
diaconate, while without the latter condition (b) bishops
and priests would have no prerogative in matters of Bap-
tism over deacons. With regard to the first-mentioned
point the PontiUcale Romanum observes : " It belongs to
the deacon to minister at the altar, to baptize, and to
preach." ^ With regard to the last-mentioned point, the
Catechism of the Council of Trent says : " Next to bish-
ops and priests come deacons, for whom, as numerous de-
crees of the holy Fathers attest, it is not lawful, without
the leave of the bishop or priest, to administer this Sacra-
ment." ^°

The extraordinary character of the preroga-
tive of deacons to confer Baptism is illustrated by

8 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 67, art. oportet ministrare ad altarc, bap-

2: " Sicut ad sacerdotem pertinct tisarc, et praedicare."

consecrare Eucharisiiani, . . . ita ad 10 P. II, c. 2, n. 23: " Secun-

proprium officium pertinet baptizare; dum ministrorum loaim obtincnt dia-

eiusdeni cnim vidclnr esse opcrari coni, quibus sine cpiscopi aut sacer-

tottim ct partem in toto disponcre." dotis conccssu non liccre hoc sacra-

Cf. Billuart, De Bapt., diss. 2, art. i. mcntum administrare phirima sane-

0 De Ordine Diac: " Diaconum torum Patnon dccrcta tcstantur,"

258

BAPTISM

the example of the deacon PhiHp, who, as the
Acts of the Apostles tell us, baptized the eunuch
of Queen Candace ^^ and a great number of other
men and women in Samaria/^ Nevertheless
the Church has always insisted that, apart from
cases of urgent necessity, deacons may not
confer solemn Baptism except with the permission
of a bishop or priest.

Thus Pope Gelasius I (d. 496) admonished the bishops
of Lucania : " Deacons must not presume to baptize
without the permission of a bishop or priest, except in
the absence of the aforesaid officials, if there be extreme
necessity." ^^ A similar passage occurs in the writings
of St. Isidore (d. 636).^*

11 Cfr. Acts VIII, 38.

12 Cfr. Acts VIII, 12.

13 Ep. ad Episc. Lucan., n. 7:
" Diaconi absque episcopo vel pres-
bytero baptizarc non audeant, nisi
praedictis fortasse oMciis longins
constitntis necessitas extrema com-
pellat." (Migtte, P. L., LIX, 51).

11 De Offic, II, 25, 9: "Constat
baptisma solis sacerdotibus esse trac-
tandum eiusque ministerium nee ipsis
diaconis explere esse licitum absque
episcopo vel presbytero, nisi his pro-

cut absentibiis ultima languoris ne-
cessitas cogat." (Migne, P. L.,
LXXXIII, 822).— For a more de-
tailed treatment consult Suarez, De
Bapt., disp. 23, sect. 2. — On the
sponsors (patrini, dpddoxoi^ cfr,
Pesch, Praelect. Dogmat., Vol. VI,
3rd ed., pp. 210 sqq. — On the cere-
monies of Baptism and their " paral-
lels " in the ethnic religions of an-
tiquity see Cabrol, Dictionnaire, s. v.
" Bapterae."

SECTION 2

WHO HAS THE POWER TO CONFER BAPTISM IN
CASES OF EMERGENCY

In case of urgent necessity any human being, irre-
spective of sex or faith, can validly baptize. This teach-
ing is based on the fact that Baptism is necessary for
salvation/ It is not a mere question of ecclesiastical
discipline but a dogma, and can be rightly understood
only in the light of Christ's implicit command, as in-
terpreted by Tradition. The Fourth Council of the Lat-
eran (121 5) declared: "The Sacrament of Baptism,
. . . properly conferred, no matter by whom (a quocun-
que rite collatuni), is useful for salvation." - The phrase
" a quocunque " was explained by the Council of Florence
(1439) as follows: "In case of necessity, not only a
priest or a deacon, but a lay man or woman, nay even a
pagan and a heretic, can [validly] baptize, provided only
that he observes the fomi prescribed by the Church and
has the intention of doing what the Church does." ^ To
set forth the process of clarification through which this
teaching has passed, it will be best to proceed chrono-
logically.

1 V . supra, Ch. II, pp. 238 sqq. vel diaconus, sed etiam laicus vel

2 Caput " Firmiter " : "Sacra- inulier, iino etiam paganus et haere-
mentum vero baplismi ... a quo- ttcus baptizare [^licitc] potest, dum-
cunque rite collatuni, proficit ad modo fortnam servet Ecclesiae et
salutem." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. facerc intendat quod facit Ec-
430). clcsia." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.

Z Dccrctum pro Armcnis: "In 696).
casu necessitatis non solum sacerdos

259

26o BAPTISM

I. Baptism Administered by Catholic Lay-
men.— At a very early date it was believed that
Catholiclaymen {homines laid) could validly bap-
tize in cases of urgent necessity, and that even
where no such necessity existed, lay Baptism was
valid, though illicit.

Tertullian says : " Besides these, even laymen have
the right [to baptize] ; for what is equally received can
be equally given." *

Several centuries later St. Jerome taught: " If neces-
sity urges, we know that even laymen are allowed [to
baptize] ; for as one has received, he may also give." ^
The argument embodied in this citation is, however, in-
conclusive and misleading. For if it were true that " what
one has received, he may also give," it would be equally
true that " one cannot give what he has not received,"
and Baptism would be invalid when administered by non-
baptized persons, which is contrary to the teaching of the
Church.

Augustine goes into the subject of lay Baptism at con-
siderable length. He says among other things : " If it
is done where no urgent necessity compels, it is a usurpa-
tion of another's [i. e. the priest's] office. But when
necessity urges, it is either no sin at all, or only a venial
sin ; but though it is usurped without any necessity, and
conferred by no matter whom on no matter whom, what
is given cannot be said to have not been given, though it
may truly be said that it is illicitly given." ^

iDe Bapt., c. 17: " Alioquin et cere [hattisare']; lit enim accepit

laicis ins est; quod enim ex aequo quis, et dare potest." (Migne, P.

[i. e. indiscriminatim'\ accipitur, ex L., XXIII, 165).
aequo dari potest." c Contr. Ep. Parmen., II, 13, 29:

5 Dial. adv. Lucif., n. 9: "Si iie- "Nulla cogente necessitate si fiat,

cessitas cogit, scimtis cfiain laicis li- alicni muneris [i. e. sacerdotis]

MINISTER

261

The Oriental Fathers were more reserved in regard to
this question. St. Basil seems to have regarded lay
Baptism as invalid.'' In process of time, however, the
Greek Church admitted its validity, though only on con-
dition that the baptizing layman be himself baptized,
i. e. a Christian. In this form lay Baptism was incor-
porated into the canon law of the East. In 1672, a
schismatic council held at Jerusalem decreed : " The
minister of this [Sacrament] is the priest alone, and, in
case of real and urgent necessity, any man, provided
only he be a believing Christian." ^

2. Baptism Administered by Heretics. —
Tertullian denied that Baptism can be validly con-
ferred by a heretic.^ The question was hotly de-
bated in the famous controversy between St. Cyp-
rian (d. 258) and Pope Stephen I, who finally
decided that repenting heretics must not be re-
baptized but reconciled through the Sacrament of
Penance.^*^

The First Ecumenical Council (325) forbade the re-
baptism of heretics. When the controversy broke out
anew, in the time of the Donatist schism, St. Augustine

rtstirpatio est. Si autem necessitas
urgeat, ant nullum aut veniale de-
lictum est; sed etsi nulla necessitate
usurpetur, et a quolibet cuiiibet de-
tur, quod datum fuerit, non potest
dici non datum, quamvis recte diet
possit illicite datum." (Migne, P.
L., LXIII, 71).

7 Ep. ad Amphiloch., I, c. i (A.
D. 374).

8 Ilardouin, Concil., XI, 250:
" Tluius minister sacerdos solus,
quin ct urgente vera necessitate qui-

vis homo, modo tamen fidelis."
Cfr. Gass, Symholik der griechischen
Kirche, p. 242, Berlin 1872. — On the
teaching of other Oriental sects, see
Denzinger, Rilus Orioitalium, Vol.
I, p. 21, Wiirzburg 1863.

9 De Bapt., c. 15.

10 " Si qitis ergo a quacunque
haeresi venient ad nos, nihil innove-
tur nisi quod traditum est, ut manus
nils imponatur in poenitentiam."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 46).

262 BAPTISM

vigorously defended the Nicene teaching. Lastly, the
Council of Trent defined : " If any one saith that the
Baptism which is given by heretics, ... is not a true Bap-
tism, let him be anathema." ^^

3. Baptism Administered by Unbelievers.
— It is more difficult to understand how unbe-
lievers, (pagans, Jev^s, Mohammedans, etc.), can
validly baptize, and hence we need not wonder
that this point was long contested.

The false inference drawn from the argument used to
defend the validity of Baptism when administered by lay-
men,^- vis.: that no one can give what he does not himself
possess, proved a serious obstacle to the correct under-
standing of the Sacrament and its administration. Even
St. Augustine was puzzled. ^^ Here, again, it was the
Holy See which gave the final decision. St. Isidore ob-
serves: "The Roman Pontiff does not judge the man
who baptizes, but [holds that] the Holy Ghost supplies
the grace of Baptism, even though it be a pagan who
baptizes." ^* The Council of Compiegne (757) confirmed
the validity of a heretical Baptism with express reference
to a decision of Pope Sergius (687-701). Nicholas I
(d. 867) decided a case of conscience brought before him
in the same sense. The Decretum pro Armenis re-

11 Sess. VII, De Bapt., can. 4: et ah his qui numquam fuerunt
"Si quis dixerit, baptismum qui Chrisiiani, baptisiniis possit dari; nee
etiani datur ah haeretieis, . . . non tamen inde aliquid afHrmandum est
esse verum baptisma, anathema sit." sine aiictoritate tanti concilii, quan-
Cfr. J. Ernst, Die Ketsertauf- turn tantae ret sufUcit."
angelcgenheit in der altchristlichen H De OfKc, II, 25, 9: " Ro-
Kirche nach Cyprian, Mainz igoi. 7nanus Pontifex non hominem iudicat

12 F. supra, No. i. qtii bapfiaat, sed Spiritum Dei sub-
is Cir. Ep. ad Parmcn., II, 13: ministrare gratiam baptismi, licet

" Haec quidem alia quaestio, utrum paganus sit qui baptisat."

MINISTER 263

affirmed the doctrine, and thus it has remained up to the
present day.

It may be noted that the power of unbelievers to baptize
was virtually included in the ancient Christian
maxim that " Baptism can be given by any one," and
needed only to be worked out.

4. Baptism Administered by Women. — The
validity of Baptism administered by women came
to be recognized last of all and rather late.

Tertullian ^^ and Epiphanius ^^ vigorously denounced
certain women who claimed the right to baptize. It
should be noted, however, that these women (Ouintilla,
the Colly ridians, etc.) posed as priestesses, and presumed
not only to baptize in cases of necessity, but to administer
solemn Baptism.^^ Probably the invectives of Tertul-
lian, Epiphanius, and later writers were directed more
against the presumption and disobedience of which these
women were guilty than against the validity of Baptism
administered by women in general. In view of St. Paul's
command that women should " keep silence in the
churches," ^^ it is not likely that Baptism was often ad-
ministered by women in the primitive Church. To-day
midwiv-es give it quite frequently in cases of necessity.
The first clear decision on the matter was issued in the
eleventh century by Pope Urban 11.^^ In principle, Ur-
ban's teaching was already contained in the ancient prac-

\T> De Bapt., c. 17. 19 Decrcf. Grat., causa 30, qu. 3,

10 Haer., 79, n. 3. c, 4: "Super quibus consuluit nos

17 Cfr. De Augustinis, De Re Sa- tua dilectio, hoc vidctur nobis ex
cramentaria, 2nd ed., Vol. I, pp. 393 sententia respondendum, ut et bap-
sq. tismus sit, si instanie necessitate

18 I Cor. XIV, 34: " Mulieres in femina pucrum in nomine Trinitatis
ecclesiis taceant." baptisaverit."

264 BAPTISM

tice of lay Baptism,^" because there is no hierarchic dis-
tinction between lay men and women. But it was not
defined dogmatically until 1439, when the Decretum pro
Armenis ^^ recognized Baptism given by women as valid
and permitted it in cases of urgent necessity. The dogma
is convincingly demonstrated by St. Thomas in the third
part of the Summa.^^

20 V. supra. No. i. Section the student may profitably

21 F. supra, p. 259, note 3. consult P. Schanz, Die Lehre von

22 Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 67, art. den hi. Sakramenten der kaih.
4. — On the whole argument of this Kirche, §18, Freiburg 1893.

CHAPTER IV

THE RECIPIENT OF BAPTISM

SECTION I
THE REQUISITES OF VALID RECEPTION

The requisites of valid reception in the case of
Baptism are mainly three: (i) The recipient
must be a human being, (2) He must be in the
wayfaring state (status viae), and (3) He must
not have been previously baptized.

I. The Recipient Must be a Human Being.
— Baptism was instituted for the purpose of blot-
ting out original sin, and therefore its effects are
limited to the descendants of Adam. The bap-
tismal mandate (Matth. XXVIII, 19; Mark XVI,
1 5 ) is intended only for the human race. A brute
beast is as incapable of receiving Baptism as a
pure spirit, and hence the story of the "baptized
lion" in the so-called Acta Paitli is sufficient to
brand that document as spurious.^

The general rule is that every living being de-
scended from a human female can receive Bap-

1 Cfr. Holzhey, Die Thckla-Aktcn, ihre Vcrbrcitung itnd Beurteilung
in der Kirche, Munich 1905.
265

266 BAPTISM

tism. In case of doubt whether the recipient is a
human being, the Sacrament should be adminis-
tered conditionally.^

2. The Recipient Must be in the Wayfar-
ing State. — Since Christ instituted His Sacra-
ments for this world, not for the next, it is self-
evident that they can be received only in statu
viae. This applies particularly to Baptism. It
is a somewhat difficult question to decide, how-
ever, just where in a given case the wayfaring
state begins and where it ends.

(a) The terminus a quo, generally speaking, is
the moment of birth.

" He who has never been born cannot be born again,"
says St. Augustine.2 Consequently a child hidden in the
maternal womb is incapable of receiving Baptism, and
to baptize the mother in its stead .would obviously be in-
valid. This explains the custom of treating still-bom
children as unbaptized and refusing them ecclesiastical
burial. Quite another question is this: Is it necessary
for a foetus to be fully developed in order to be ca-
pable of Baptism, or does the wayfaring state begin
at the moment when the soul is infused into the body?
As the human foetus is a person independent of the
mother, its existence plainly begins with the infusion
of the intellectual soul. Hence it is reasonable and cus-
tomary to baptize the foetus in case of premature birth
as well as a full-grown child not yet brought to light when

2 On deformed and monstrous 3 De Pecc. Mer. et Remiss., II,

births, see Capellmann, Pastoral- 27, 43: "Qui natus non fuerit,

medisin, i6th ed., pp. 124 sqq., Aix- renasci non potest."
la-Chapelle 191 0.

RECIPIENT 267

there is danger of death, and to rebaptize conditionally
only when it has been impossible to reach the head.'*

b) The status viae ends with death. To bap-
tize a corpse would be both illicit and invalid;
Benedict XIV has expressly forbidden it.

It belongs to competent medical authority to decide
whether or not in a given case death has set in. There
is a curious passage in St. Paul's First Epistle to
the Corinthians, which has been cited in favor of baptiz-
ing the dead and therefore requires a word of explana-
tion. The Apostle says : " Otherwise what shall they
do that are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not
again at all ? Wliy are they then baptized for them ? " ^
This passage is obscure and anything but relevant to the
point. If the Corinthians were accustomed to baptize liv-
ing persons in place of the dead, St. Paul surely did not
mean to approve the practice, but merely cited it as an
argumentum ad hominem to prove the dogma of the resur-
rection. In that hypothesis there would be question of
baptizing not the dead, but living substitutes for the
benefit of the dead.*' Most likely, however, the text refers
to a symbolic intercession, consisting of works of pen-
ance voluntarily assumed by living relatives or friends for
the spiritual benefit of the departed.'^

3. The Recipient Must be Unbaptized. —
This requisite follows logically from the unity of
Baptism and the fact that it cannot be repeated.^

4 Cfr. J. E. Pruner, Lehrbuch der 6 Cfr. on this obscure Pauline text
Pastoraltheologie, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Al. SChafer, Erkliirung der beidcn
pp. 151 sqq., Paderborn 1904. Briefe an die Korinthcr, pp. 321

5 I Cor. XV, 29: " Alioquin quid sqq., Miinster 1903.

facient qui baptisantur pro mortuis 7 Cfr. the new Westminster Ver-

(inrip Twv veKpwv), si omnino nior- sion, i. h. I., and MacRory's com-
tui non rcsurgunt? Ut quid at mentary, pp. 238 sqq.
baptizantur pro illis (^airTi^ovTai 8 On the intention of the baptisan-

vnep aVTuv) ? " dus as a requisite of validity v.

supra, pp. 196 sqq.

SECTION 2

INFANT BAPTISM

I. The Validity of Infant Baptism. — In
regard to the Baptism of infants, and in general
of those who have not yet reached the use of rea-
son (paedobaptismus) , there arises a twofold
question: (i) Can infants validly receive the
Sacrament? and (2) Should it be administered
to children before they have attained the years
of discretion?

a) In the first three centuries of the Christian era the
Church tolerated, without, however, in any way approv-
ing, the practice of delaying Baptism to an advanced
age, sometimes even to the hour of death.'' In 1439, the
Council of Florence forbade the postponement of Baptism
even for forty or eighty days. Since the Tridentine
Council it is a strict ecclesiastical precept that infants
must be baptized as soon as possible after birth.

The chief opponents of infant Baptism are the Anabap-
tists (or re-baptizers : avd) in Germany; the Antipedobap-
tists (avTL, Trats, (SaTTTi^o)) in England, a name which is now
commonly shortened into Baptists ; and the Mennonites.^°

9 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, " who use immersion, are specially
De Bapt., can. 12. (Denzinger- careful in the application of the mat-
Bannwart, n. 868). ter and form and there is little room

10 " The Baptists," says Fr. Hunt- for doubt as to the validity of their
er (.Outlines, Vol. Ill, p. 118), Baptisms; it is, therefore, the more

268

INFANT BAPTISM

269

b) The Second Council of Mileve (416) anath-
ematized all 'Svho deny that new-born infants
should be baptized immediately after birth." ^^
The Tridentine Council declared: 'Tf anyone
saith that little children, because they have not
actual faith, are not, after having received Bap-
tism, to be reckoned among the faithful, and that
for this cause they are to be rebaptized when they
have attained to years of discretion, or that it is
better that the Baptism of such be omitted than
that, while not believing by their own act, they
should be baptized in the faith alone of the
Church, let him be anathema." ^^ Hence it is an
article of faith that the Baptism of infants is
valid, because it incorporates them into the body
of the Church, and may not be repeated after
they have attained the use of reason/^

2. The Dogma Proved From Revelation. —
As the validity of infant Baptism is neither posi-

unfortunate that they refuse to ad-
minister the Sacrament to infants."
— On the Mennonites see N. A.
Weber in the Cath. Encyclopedia,
Vol. X, page 190. — On Baptism
among modern Protestants gener-
ally, consult A. Seeberg, Die Taufe
im Neuen Testament, 1905; Rend-
torflf, Die Taufe im Urcliristentum
im Lichte der neueren Forschungen,
1905; Roberts, Christian Baptism,
Its Significance and its Subjects,
London 1905.

11 Can. 2: " Quicunque parvulos
recentes ab uteris matrum baptizan-
dos negat, . . . anathema sit."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 102).

12 Sess. Vn, De Bapt., can. 13:
" Si quis dixerit, parvulos eo quod
actum credendi non habent stiscepto
baptismo inter fideles computandos
non esse ac propterea, quum ad an-
nos discretionis pervenerint, esse re-
baptizandos, aut praestare omitti
eorum baptisma quam eos non actu
proprio credentes baptisari in sola
fide Ecclesiae, anathema sit." (Den-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 869).

IS Cfr. the Catholic teaching on
original sin, as explained in Pohle-
Preuss, God the Author of Nature
and the Supernatural, pp. 232 sqq.

270

BAPTISM

lively asserted nor practically exemplified in Holy
Writ, it is impossible to demonstrate this dogma
conclusively from Scripture. It can, however, be
so convincingly proved from Tradition that the
great mass of Protestants prefer to contradict
their own system by tacitly admitting the Catholic
principle of Tradition, rather than surrender the
ancient and universal practice of infant Bap-
tism/^

a) Though, as we have already remarked, infant Bap-
tism cannot be demonstrated from the Bible, the CathoHc
dogma of its vaHdity, far from being unscriptural, is in
perfect conformity with the spirit of God's written Reve-
lation. In the first place, when, as was frequently the
case (cfr. Acts XVI, 15; i Cor. I, 16), whole families
were baptized, it is likely that sometimes there were little
children among them. The Catholic dogma, moreover,
fully agrees with the Scriptural teaching on the nature
and necessity of Baptism. From our Lord's dictum that
the kingdom of heaven is for little children, and His
solemn declaration that " unless a man be born again of
water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the king-
dom of God," ^^ we may legitimately conclude that infants
not only may but must be " born again," i. e. baptized. It

14 Thus the catechism, which forms
part of the Book of Common Prayer
of the Anglican Church, explains
that faith is required of persons to
be baptized, and that infants who
have no faith are baptized because
their godparents promise that they
shall have the faith hereafter, a
promise which they themselves arc
in due time bound to perform.
" liow this view secures the requi-

site faith in case the child die be-
fore reaching the years of discre-
tion," observes Fr. Hunter (Out-
lines, Vol. Ill, p. 221), "is not
explained, nor is it made clear
whether Baptism may be valid in
the absence of godparents; and
many other similar doubts may be
raised as to the meaning."

isMatth. XIX, 14; John IH, 5.

INFANT BAPTISM 271

should be noted, too, that the Jewish rite of circumcision,
which was preeminently the type of Christian Baptism,^*'
would have foreshadowed that Sacrament but very imper-
fectly, to say the least, if the children of the New Testa-
ment were deprived of the means of obtaining forgive-
ness of original sin,— a privilege which was granted to
the children of the Old Testament Jews.

b) Tradition was already crystallized at the
time of St. Augustine, who triumphantly opposed
the practice of infant Baptism to the Pelagian de-
nial of original sin/^ Hence we can limit the
Patristic argument to the pre-Augustinian period.
Augustine himself states the belief and practice
of that period as follows: ''The infants are
brought to church, and if they cannot go there on
their own feet, they run with the feet of oth-
ers. . . . Let no one among you, therefore, mur-
mur strange doctrines. This the Church has al-
ways had, this she has always held; this she re-
ceived from the faith of the ancients; this she
preserves tenaciously to the end." ^^

St. Cyprian (d. 258), speaking in his own name and in
that of his fellow-bishops at the Council of Carthage
(253), said to Fidus : " No one agrees with you in your
opinion as to what should be done, but we all, on the

10 V. supra, pp. 22 sqq. alicnis pcdihiis currunt. . . . Nemo

17 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the Au- ergo vohis susurret alienas doctrinas.

thor of Nature and the Supernat- Hoc Ecclesia semper habuit, semper

ural, p. 253. tcnuit; hoc a tnaiorum fide accepit;

IS Serm., 176, n. 2: " Et ipsi hoc usque in finem pcrseveranter cu-

Iparvuli'] portantur ad ecclesiam, et stodit." (Migne, P. L., XXXVUI,

si pedibus illuc currere non possunt, 9S0).

2^2 BAPTISM

contrary, judge that to no one born of man was the mercy
and the grace of God to be denied." '^^ St. Augustine ex-
plains this utterance as follows : " The Blessed Cyprian,
not forming any new decree, but maintaining the assured
faith of the Church, in order to correct those who held
that an infant should not be baptized before the eighth
day, gives it as his own judgment and that of his fellow-
bishops, that a child can be validly baptized as soon as
born." -°

In the East, at about the same time, Origen says:
" The Church hath received it as a tradition from the
Apostles that infants, too, ought to be baptized." ^^

Long before either St. Cyprian or Origen, St. Irenaeus
of Lyons (b. about 140) wrote: "Christ came to save
all through Himself, — all, I say, who through Him are
born again in God : infants and little children and boys
and young men and old men." —

Recent discoveries in the Roman catacombs prove that
infant Baptism was common in the primitive Church.
Thus a certain Murtius Verinus placed on the tomb
of his children the inscription: " Verina received [Bap-
tism] at the age of ten months, Fiorina at the age of
twelve months." Above another tomb we read : " Here

10 Ep. 64, n. 2, ed. Hartel, II, episcopis censuit." (Migne, P. L.,

718: "In hoc quod tu putabas esse XXXIII, 731).

faciendum nemo consentit, sed uni- 21 In Ep. ad Rom., V, n. 9

versi potius iudicavimus nulli ho- (Migne, P. C, XIV, 1047). .

tninwn nato misericordiam Dei et 22 Adv. Haer., II, 22, 4: " Omnes

gratiam denegandam," venit \_Christtis~\ per semctipsum sal-

20 Ep. 166 ad Hier., n. 23: vare, omnes inquam, qui per ipsum

" Beatus Cyprianiis, non aliquod de- renascuntur in Deum: infantes et

cretum condens novum, sed Ecclesiae parvulos et pueros et iuvenes et

fidem firmissimam servans, ad corri- seniores." (Migne, P. C, VII,

gendum eos qui putabant ante oc- 784). Cfr. A. Seitz, Die Heilsnot-

tavum diem nativitatis non esse wendigkeit der Kirche nach der alt-

parvulum baptisandum, . . . mox christlichen Literatur bis stir Zeit

natum rite baptisari posse cum snis des hi. Augustinus, pp. 298 sqq.,

Freiburg 1903.

INFANT BAPTISM' 273

rests Achillia, a newly-baptized [infant] ; she was one
year and five months old, died February 23rd." ^^

3. A Dogmatic Corollary. — The dogma of
the vahdity of infant Baptism imposes on those
who have been baptized in infancy the strict duty
of keeping the baptismal vow made for them by
their sponsors. Erasmus' demand that baptized
children should be left free to ratify that vow or
to repudiate it when they attain to the years of dis-
cretion, was rejected by the Tridentine Council
with the declaration : 'Tf any one saith that those
who have been thus baptized when children, are
to be asked when they have grown up, whether
they will ratify what their sponsors promised in
their names when they were baptized, and that,
in case they answer that they will not, they are
to be left to their own will, ... let him be anath-
ema." ^^

To admit the contention of Erasmus, which is
unblushingly put into practice by modern Ration-
alists, is like unfurling the banner of revolution
within the sacred precincts of the Church.

23 Cfr. A. Weber, Die romischen 24 Sess. VII, De Bapt., can. 14:

Katakomben, 3rd ed., p. 60, Ratis- " Si quis dixerit, huiusmodi parvu-

bon 1906. — On the subject of in- los baptizatos, quum adolcverint, in-

fant Baptism the student may prof- terrogandos esse, an ratnm habere

itably consult Cardinal Bellarmine, vclint, quod patrini eorum nomine,

De Baptismo, c. 8-ii; Risi, De Bap- dum baptisarentur, polliciti sunt, et

tismo Parvulorum in Primitiva Ec- ubi se nolle responderint, suo esse

clesia, Rome 1870; W. Wall, His- arbitrio relinquendos, . . . anathema

tory of Infant Baptism, 2 vols., Lon- sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 870).
don 1900.

274 BAPTISM

To allow a baptized child, when he attains the use of
reason, to choose freely between the true and a false re-
ligion, to decide whether he will keep the holy law of God
or repudiate it at pleasure, betrays rank indifferent-
ism. One sometimes hears the objection: "How can
a promise given without my knowledge and consent by
some other person, bind my conscience, so long as I have
not expressly recognized and accepted the duty it im-
poses?" We answer that the baptismal vow derives its
binding force not from the circumstance that it is made by
the sponsors in the name of the baptized child, but from
the fact that Baptism, by its very nature as well as by a
positive divine ordinance, initiates the recipient into the
Catholic religion and, by virtue of the baptismal character
which it imprints on the soul, constitutes him a subject of
Christ and the Church. By Baptism a man is, as it were,
born into the society of the faithful and thereby im-
mediately subjected to the law of Christ, just as the chil-
dren of the Israelites became subject to the Mosaic law
by circumcision. As man by the fact of being born
a rational being, is bound to observe the moral law of na-
ture and the positive laws of his country, no matter
whether he approves of them or not, so, through the
fact of his being born again of water and the Holy Ghost,
he is incorporated into the Church and becomes subject
to her laws. And as one need not ratify his physi-
cal birth by an act of formal and express approval,
so a Christian has no right to make his supernatural re-
birth conditional upon his subsequent consent. The cus-
tomary renewal of the baptismal vow at solemn first Com-
munion has for its object, not to permit the children to
decide whether they will or will not ratify the promise
made for them by their sponsors, but to give them an op-

INFANT BAPTISM 275

portunity of freely promising to do what they are bound
to do in any event.

Readings : — The Scholastic commentators on Peter Lombard's
Liber Sententiaruni, IV, dist. 3, and on St. Thomas, *Summa
TheoL, 3a, qu. 66; especially Billuart, Tract, de Baptismo (ed. Le-
quette, Vol. VI, pp. 253 sqq.). — Bellarmine, De Sacramento Bap-
tismi (^Opera Omnia, ed. J. Fevre, Vol. Ill, pp. 513 sqq., Paris
1870). — *Tournely, De Baptismo (in Migne, Curs. Theol. Com-
plct., Vol. XXI). — Bertieri, De Sacramentis in Genere, Baptismo
et Confirmatione, Vienna 1774. — ■ Zimmermann, De Baptismi Ori-
gine eiusque Usu Hodierno, 1815. — Hofling, Das Sakrament der
Taufe, 2 vols., 1846, 1848. — M. J. Ryan, De Doctrina S. loattnis
circa Baptismum, Rochester 1908. — *J. Corblet, Histoire Dognia-
tiqiie, Liturgique et Archcologique dti Sacrement do Baptcme, 2
vols., Paris 1881. — Fanning, s. v. "Baptism," in the Catholic En-
cyclopedia, Vol. II. — P. Drew, s. v. " Baptism," in the New
S chaff -Her zog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. I.

Cfr. also the treatises on Baptism in the following works :
*Probst, Sakramente und Sakranientalien in den ersten drei Jahr-
hundcrten, Tiibingen 1872; De Augustinis, De Re Sacramentaria,
Vol. I, 2nd ed., Rome 1899 ; P. Schanz, Die Lchre von den hi. Sa-
kramenten der kath. Kirche, § 14 sqq., Freiburg 1893; L. Billot, De
Ecclesiae Sacramentis, Vol. I, 4th ed., Rome 1907 ; Oswald, Die
dogmatische Lehre von den hi. Sakramcnten, Vol. I, 5th ed., Miin-
ster 1894; Chr. Pesch, Praclectiones Dogniaticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed.,
Freiburg 1908; Tepe, Institutiones Theologicae, Vol. IV, Paris
1896 ; J. B. Sasse, De Sacramentis Ecclesiae, Vol. I, Freiburg 1897 ;
P. Einig, Tractatus de Sacramentis, Treves 1900; *Heinrich-Gut-
berlet, Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IX, Mainz 1901 ; Nik. Gihr,
Die hi. Sakramente der kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Freiburg
1902; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'Archcologie Chrctienne et de Litur-
gie, s. V. "Baptcme" Paris 1903 sqq.; Fr. Dcilger, Der Exorzismus
im altchristtichen Taiif ritual. Eine rcUgionsgcschichtlichc Studie,
Padcrborn 1909; W. Koch, Die Taufe im Ncucn Testament,
Miinster 1910; S. J. Hunter, Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, Vol.
Ill, pp. 214-233, London 1894; Wilhelm-Scannell, A Manual of
Catholic Theology, Vol. IT, pp. 378-302, 2nd ed., London 1901 ;
W. Humphrey, The One Mediator, pp. 81 sqq., London 1890; A.
Devine, The Sacraments Explained, pp. 134 sqq., 3rd ed., London
1905.

PART III

CONFIRMATION

The Sacrament of Confirmation owes its
name to the fact that it was always regarded
as a making fast or sure (j8e/3atwo-ts^ conUrmatio) , a
perfecting or completing (reAeiwo-is^ consummatio)
in relation to Baptism. In ancient times these
two Sacraments were generally administered to-
gether.

From its effects Confirmation is known as the " Sacra-
ment of the Holy Ghost " (sacramentum Spiritus Sancti)
and also as the " Sacrament of the Seal " (signacidum,
sigillum, o-^payts, from o-^payt^etv, to confirm). It should
be noted, however, that in the first two centuries of the
Christian era the words o^payk and tIX^lov were fre-
quently applied to Baptism.

From the external rite Confirmation was formerly also
called " the laying-on of hands " (impositio manuum,
emOeat's x^'-P^^) or " anointing with chrism " (imctio, chris-
matio, xpto-/^a, [xvpov). To-day these names are no longer
in use, but the Sacrament is commonly known as " Con-
Urmatio " in the Latin and to ixvpov in the Greek Church.

Confirmation may be defined as a Sacrament in which
those already baptized, through the imposition of hands,
anointment, and the prayer of the bishop, receive the
power of the Holy Ghost, by which they are enabled to be-

276

CONFIRMATION 277

lieve firmly and to profess the faith boldly. The Coun-
cil of Trent contented itself with three short canons on
the subject/ which are appended to those dealing with
Baptism. Confirmation both internally and externally
bears so close a relation to Baptism that we may safely
treat it along the same lines.

1 Sess. VII, De Confirm., can. 1-3.

CHAPTER I

CONFIRMATION A TRUE SACRAMENT

SECTION I

DIVINE INSTITUTION

I. Heretical Perversions vs. the Teaching
OF THE Church. — No ancient or medieval sect
ever denied the Sacrament of Confirmation.

a) The Novatians underrated its necessity for salva-
tion.2 The Albigenses (and possibly the Waldenses) de-
nied its divine institution. The WicHfites and Hussites
entertained wrong notions with regard to the requisites
of vahdity in the minister. But it remained for Luther,
Melanchthon, Calvin, and the rest of the so-called Protes-
tant reformers to reject Confirmation altogether, or at
least to reduce it to " an idle ceremony," " a kind of cate-
chism," " a renewal of the baptismal vow," and so forth.
The worst offender was Calvin, who referred to this sub-
lime rite as " the abortive larva of a sacrament," " a false
promise of the devil," and in other abusive terms.^ Cal-
vin's example was followed by Dallseus, Basnage, and
Antonio de Dominis, apostate archbishop of Spalato
(1561-1624).

2 Cf r. Theodoret, Haer. FabuL, 3 Instit. IV, 9 : " abortivant sa-

III, s: "... Us quos baptizabant, cramenti larvam," " bap'tismi contu
chrisma non praebent." meliani/' " falsam diaboli pollicita-

278

DIVINE INSTITUTION 279

b) The Council of Trent declares that Con-
firmation is one of the Seven Sacraments of the
Church/ and that it is a true Sacrament, distinct
from Baptism. "If any one saith that the Con-
firmation of those who have been baptized is an
idle ceremony, and not rather a true and proper
Sacrament, or that of old it was nothing more
than a kind of catechism whereby they who were
near adolescence gave an account of their faith
in the face of the Church, let him be anathema." ^

2. The Argument From Revelation. —
Since it cannot be shown directly from the Bible
when and how Christ instituted Confirmation, we
have to fall back upon an indirect argument,
which will, however, prove conclusive in the light
of ecclesiastical Tradition.

a) Holy Scripture furnishes the following
data:

a) Christ promised before His Passion ^ that those who
beheved in Him should receive the Holy Ghost. This
promise He repeated after the Resurrection. Luke
XXIV, 49: "I send the promise of my Father upon you ;
but stay you in the city, till you be endued with power
from on high." ^ The fulfilment came on Pentecost, when

tionem," " oleum diaboli mendacio sacramentum, aut olim nihil aliud

pollutum," " oleum putidum," etc. fuisse quam catechesin quondam,

4 Sess. VII, De Sacram., can. i. ... anathema sit." (Denzinger-

5 Sess. VII, De Confirm., can. i: Bannwart, n. 871).

" Si quis diverit, confirmationem 0 Cfr. John XIV, 16.

baptiaatorum otiosam cerimoniam 7 Luc. XXIV, 49: " Et ego

esse et non potius verum et proprium

28o CONFIRMATION

" they were all filled with the Holy Ghost." ® The re-
sults were wonderful beyond expectation. Inspired by
the Holy Ghost, the disciples spoke in divers tongues,
wrought miracles, fearlessly professed their faith in
Christ, and suffered martyrdom for His sake.

P) The mission of the Holy Ghost was not limited to
the Apostles and disciples. It was intended for all the
faithful without exception. Cfr. John VII, 2)7 sq. : " On
the last and great day of the festivity, Jesus stood and
cried, saying: If any man thirst, let him come to me,
and drink. He that believeth in me, as the scripture saith.
Out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water." St.
John adds by way of explanation : " Now this he said
of the Spirit^ which they should receive who believed
in him ; ^° for as yet the Spirit was not given, because
Jesus was not yet glorified." "

A universal outpouring of the Holy Ghost in the
Messianic age had been foreshadowed by the prophets.
Cfr. Is. XLIV, 3; LIX, 21 ; Ez. XI, 19; XXXVI, 25 sq.;
XXXIX, 29; Joel II, 28. The pentecostal gift was un-
derstood by St. Peter as a grace intended for all, for
he says : " Do penance, and be baptized every one of
you ^^ in the name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of
your sins : and you shall receive the gift of the Holy
Ghost.^^ For the promise ^^ is to you, and to your chil-
dren, and to all that are far off, whomsoever the Lord
our God shall call."

mitto promissum Patris mei (tt]v 1" ol TTiffTevovres eh airov =

eTTayyeXlaii tov irarpos fxov) in vos ; omnes Christifideles.

vos autem sedete in civitate quoad- n John VII, 39.

usque induamini virtute ex alto." 12 eKaffTOS vfiuv- The passage is

8 Acts II, 4: " Et repleti sunt Acts II, 38 sq.

omnes Spiritu Sancto." 13 ttiv dupeau tov ayiov TTvevfia-

!> Trept TOV TTvev/xaTOS' tos-

14 17 iirayyeXia.

DIVINE INSTITUTION 281

y) The only question that remains to be an-
swered is : Was the Holy Ghost to be communi-
cated to the faithful by means of a special out-
ward rite distinct from Baptism? The answer
may be gathered from the following Scriptural
texts. Acts VIII, 14 sqq. : ''When the Apos-
tles, who were in Jerusalem, had heard that Sa-
maria had received the word of God, they sent
unto them Peter and John, who, when they were
come, prayed for them, that they might receive
the Holy Ghost ; for He was not as yet come upon
any of them, but they were only baptized in the
name of the Lord Jesus. Then they laid their
hands upon them, and they received the Holy
Ghost.^^ And when Simon [Magus] saw, that
by the imposition of the hands of the Apostles, the
Holy Ghost was given,^^ he offered them money,"
etc. From this passage we may infer: (i) that
the Apostles imparted the Holy Ghost by the lay-
ing-on of hands, i. e. by means of a sacramental
rite; (2) that this rite was distinct from Baptism,
the people of Samaria having been previously bap-
tized by Philip ; (3) that the power to perform this
ceremony was reserved to the Apostles, i. e.
bishops, else why should Peter and John, during
a time of persecution, have risked their lives to go
to Samaria? (4) That the imposition of hands

15 rSre ineTlOeffav ras x^'P^s ^'^ <!''■' 5ia ttis eiriOectews twv

eV aiiTovt Kal iXdfM^avov irvevixa. xetpwj' twv atroaToKwv didorai rd
Sr/iov. Trvevfj.a to ayiou.

282

CONFIRMATION

was regarded as a necessary complement of, and
consequently as a true Sacrament distinct from,
Baptism/'^

The Protestant objection that the imposition of hands
had for its sole purpose the conferring of certain ex-
traordinary gifts (charismata), such as speaking with
divers tongues, prophesying, etc., is refuted by the fact
that those gifts were sometimes bestowed without any
external rite ^® and that they neither invariably nor neces-
sarily accompanied Confirmation.^^

b) Ecclesiastical Tradition is perfectly clear on
this point. Belief in the divine institution of
Confirmation was firmly established in St. Au-
gustine's time, and hence it will suffice to demon-
strate its existence during the preceding period."'^

a) St. Jerome (d. 420), who was so ardent a cham-
pion of the rights of the priesthood, speaks of episcopal
Confirmation tours as customary in his time -^ and proves
their propriety from Scripture and Tradition. " You
ask, where is it written? In the Acts of the Apostles.
But even if Sacred Scripture supplied no authority [for
the custom], the consensus of the whole world would
give it the force of a precept." ^- Pope St. Innocent the

17 On the scriptural argument
drawn from Acts XIX, i sqq., see
Pohle-Preuss, The Divine Trinity,
pp. 10 1 sqq. Cfr. Fr. Dolger, Das
Sakrament der Firmung, pp. 27 sqq.,
Vienna 1906.

18 Cfr. Acts X, 44 sqq.

19 Cfr. I Cor. XII, 30.

20 On the teaching of St. Augus-
tine V. suf'ra, pp. 79 sqq. Of the
Saint's writings see especially Tract.

in I Ep. loan., 6, n. 10; In Ps., 26,
n. 2.

21 Dial. adv. Lucif., n. 9: " Non
quidem abnuo, hanc esse ecclesiarum
consucttidinem, ut ad eos qui longe
a maioribus per presbyteros et dia-
conos baptisati sunt, episcopus ad
invocationem Spiritus Sancti nianus
impositurtis excurrat."

22 Ibid.: " Exigis, ubi scriptum
sit? In actibus Apostolorum.

DIVINE INSTITUTION

283

First (402-414) issued detailed instructions with regard
to the administration of the Sacrament. " As regards the
sealing of infants," he says, " it is clear that it may
not lawfully be done by any one but a bishop. For pres-
byters, though they be priests of the second rank, have
not attained to the summit of the pontificate. That this
pontifical right belongs to bishops only, — ■ to wit, that they
may seal or deliver the Spirit, the Paraclete, — is demon-
strated not merely by ecclesiastical usage, but also by that
portion of the Acts of the Apostles wherein it is declared
that Peter and John were sent to give the Holy Ghost to
those who had already been baptized. For when presby-
ters baptize, whether with or without the presence of a
bishop, they may anoint the baptized with chrism, pro-
vided it be previously consecrated by a bishop, but not
sign the forehead with that oil, which is a right reserved
to bishops only, when they give the Spirit, the Paraclete.
The words, however, I cannot name, for fear of seeming
to betray rather than to reply to the point on which you
have consulted me." ^^

St. Cyprian (d. 258) writes: "The Samaritans had
already obtained legitimate ecclesiastical Baptism, and

Etiamsi S. Scriptttrae auctoritas non
subcsset, totius orbis in hanc par-
tem consensus instar praecepti ob-
tineret."

'-3 Ep. (25) " Si instituta ecclesi-
astica," ad Decent. Episc. Eugubin. :
" De consignandis vcro infantibus
manifestum est, non ab alio quam ab
episcopo fieri licere. Nam presby-
teri, licet secundi sint sacerdotes,
pontifieatus tamen apiccni non ha-
bent. Hoc autem pontificium solis
deberi episcopis, ut vel consignent,
vcl Paracletum Spiritum tradant, non
solum consuetudo ecclesiatica de-
tnonstrat, vcrum ctiam et ilia lectio

Actuum Apostolorum, quae asscrit
Petriim et loannem esse directos,
qui iam baptisatis traderent Spiritum
Sanctum. Nam presbyteris sive ex-
tra episcopum, sive praesente epi-
scopo quum bapti^ant, chrismate bap-
tizatos ungcre licet; sed quod ab
episcopo fuerit consecratum, non
tamen frontcm ex eodem oleo si
gnare, quod solis debetur episcopis,
quum tradunt Spiritum Paracletum
Verba vero dicere non possum, ne
magis prodere videar, quatn ad con
sultalionem respondere." (Deii'

zinger-Bannwart, n. 98).

284 CONFIRMATION

hence it was not fitting that they should be baptized
anew; Peter and John merely supplied what was want-
ing, vis. : that prayer being made for them and hands im-
posed, the Holy Ghost should be invoked and poured
forth upon them ; which also is now done among us ; so
that they who are baptized in the Church are presented
to the bishops of the Church, and by our prayer and
the imposition of hands, receive the Holy Ghost and are
perfected by the seal of the Lord." ^*

At about the same time, Pope St. Cornelius (251-253)
refers to Confirmation in his judgment against the no-
torious Novatian, who, after having been baptized on his
sick-bed, " did not receive the other things, nor was he
signed with the seal of the Lord by the bishop ; and not
having received this seal, how could he receive the Holy
Ghost ?"^^

Tertullian was familiar with the rite of Confirmation,
for he says in his treatise De Baptismo: " Then, emerg-
ing from the laver, we are anointed with a blessed unc-
tion. . . . The unction runs bodily over us, but profits
spiritually. . . . Then the hand is laid upon us through
the blessing, calling upon and inviting the Holy Ghost." '®

24 Ep. 73 ad lubaian., n. 9, ed. 25 Ep. ad Fabium, quoted by Eu-

Hartel, II, 785: " Samaritani quia sebius. Hist. Ecclcs., VI, 43:

legitimum et ecclesiasticum baptis- " Morbo tandem elapsus neque cetera

mum consecuti fuerant, baptisari eos acquisivit neque Domini sigillo ab

ultra non oportebat; sed iantum- episcopo obsignatus fuit; hoc autem

modo quod deerat, id a Petro et signaculo minimc pcrcepto quomodo

Joanne factum est, ut oratione pro Spiritum Sanctum potuit accipcre? "

lis habita et manu imposita invo- 26 De Bapt., c. 7 : " Exinde

caretiir et infunderetur super eos egressi de lavacro perungimur bene-

Spiritus Sanctus, quod nunc quoque dicta unctione . . . Sic et in nobis

apud nos geritur, ut qui in Ecclcsia carnaliter ctirrit unctio, sed spiritu-

baptisantur, praepositis ecclesiae of- aliter proficit." Ibid., c. 8: " De-

ferantur et per nostram orationem hinc manus imponitur per benedic-

et manuum impositionem Spiritum tionem advocans et invitans Spiritum

Sanctum conscquantur et signaculo Sanctum."
dominico consummentur."

DIVINE INSTITUTION 285

According to the recent researches of Dolger," Con-
firmation in the time of Tertullian and St. Cyprian was
administered immediately after Baptism. The neophyte
was anointed from head to foot, clothed in white, and led
before the bishop, who, laying his hand upon him, invoked
the Holy Ghost and made the sign of the cross (signacn-
lum) on his forehead.

Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) separated the two anoint-
ments, permitting the priest to perform the former and
reserving the latter (on the forehead) to the bishop.
Tertullian-^ protests against a mock confirmation prac-
ticed by the votaries of the Mithraic cult, which cere-
mony, Cumont -^ thinks, consisted in branding the candi-
date with a red-hot iron, possibly accompanied by some
sort of unction.

/3) In the Greek Church, St. John Chrysostom, who
was a contemporary of St. Augustine, writes : " Philip
was one of the seven, the second [in rank] after Stephen.
Hence, when he baptized, he did not communicate to the
neophytes the Holy Ghost, because he had not the power
to do so. This gift was peculiar to the twelve, a preroga-
tive of the Apostles; whence we see [even now] that
the coryphaei [bishops] and none other do this." ^°

St. Basil (d. 379) barely hints at the existence of Con-
firmation : " We bless the water of Baptism and the oil of
unction — by what written authority ? Is it not rather in
virtue of a secret and hidden tradition ? " ^^

St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386) is the great Eastern
authority on the subject. In his famous Catecheses My-
stagogicae, delivered to the newly baptized Christians

27 Das Sakrament dcr Firmung, ^o Horn, in Act., i8, n. 3 (Migne,
pp. 65 sqq. P- G., LX, 144).

28 Dc Pracscrift., c. 40. 31 De Spir. S.j c. 27.

29 Die Mystcricn dcs Mithra, p.
117, Leipzig 1898.

286 CONFIRMATION

in Easter week, he extols Confirmation in such glowing
terms that the Lutheran theologian Chemnitz jestingly
refers to this Sacrament as " chrisma Cyrillianum." In
the third Catechesis, which is entirely devoted to Con-
firmation, we read : " To you also, after you had come
up from the pool of the sacred streams, was given the
chrism, the emblem [antitype] of that wherewith Christ
was anointed; and this is the Holy Ghost. . . . Beware
of regarding this as a plain and common ointment. For
as the bread of the Eucharist, after the invocation of
the Holy Ghost, is no longer common bread, but the body
of Christ, so this holy ointment, after the invocation, is
no longer plain ointment, nor, so to say, common, but
the chrism of Christ, which by the presence of the god-
head causes in us the Holy Ghost. This symbolically
anoints thy forehead and thy other senses ; and the body
indeed is anointed with visible ointment (rw ixvpw), but
the soul is sanctified by the holy and life-giving Spirit." ^^

It is extremely probable that St. Theophilus of Antioch
(d. about i8o) had the Sacrament of Confirmation in
mind when he wrote : " Assuredly we have received
the name of Christians from nowhere else than because
we were overspread with divine oil." ^^

An indirect proof for the existence of this Sacrament
in the first half of the second century is furnished by the
fact that the practice of the laying-on of hands and the
anointing of baptized persons was in vogue among the
Gnostics, who must have gotten it from the Catholic
Church.^*

S2 Cat. Myst., 3, cap. 3 (Migne, 33 Ad Autolyc, c. i, n. 12

P. C, XXXIII, 1090), Cfr. J. (Migne, P. G., VI, 1042).

Marquardt, 5. Cyrillus Hierosoty- 34 Cfr. Dolger, Das Sakrament

tnitanus Baptismi, Chrismatis, Eu- der Firmung, pp. 4 sqq.
clmristiae Mysteriorum Interpres,
Leipzig 1882,

DIVINE INSTITUTION 2^7

Speaking generally it may be said that " anointing and
the imposition of hands in the Catholic Church did not
originate towards the close of the second century, but can
be traced by a well-established tradition back to the time
of the Apostles." ^^

The argument from prescription becomes irrefutable in
the light of the teaching and practice of the schismatic
Greeks and the ancient sectaries, who, with the sole ex-
ception of the Nestorians, recognized Confirmation as a
Sacrament.^^

35 Of. cit., p. 8. — The argument See also Bellarmine, De Confirm.,

from Tradition is fully developed c. 5 sqq.

up to the twelfth century by Vi- 36 Cfr. Dolger, op. cit., pp. 9

tasse in Migne's Theol. Cursus sqq., 42 sqq.
Compl., Vol. XXI, pp. 556 sqq.

SECTION 2

MATTER AND FORM

As there is nothing dogmatically defined with regard to
this phase of our subject, we must rely entirely on theo-
logical arguments. Catholic writers are at variance as to
what constitutes the essential matter of Confirmation.

I. The Materia Proxima. — The reason why
we do not begin with an attempt to determine the
materia reniofa of Confirmation is this: If it
were true, as some contend, that the essential mat-
ter of this Sacrament consists in the imposition of
hands, there would be no materia reinota.

Concerning the materia proxima there are four
different theories.

a) Most of the older canonists and theolo-
gians ^ regard the impositio manuum (x^ipoOeaia^
as the sole matter of Confirmation.

Their chief argument is that Holy Scripture ^ always
describes Confirmation as a laying-on of hands, never
as an unction (chrismatio) . However, Staerk,^ basing his
conclusions on 2 Cor. I, 21 sq., contends that the Apostolic

1 Notably Aureolus {Comment, in 2 Acts VIII, 14 sqq., XIX, i sqq.

Sent., IV, dist. 79, qu. i), Isaac 3 Der Taufritus, p. 159, Freiburg

Habert, Petavius, Sirmond (Migne, 1903.
Theol. Curs, Compl., XXI, p. 769).

288

MATTER AND FORM 289

formula of Confirmation ran something like this : "" Chris-
mate sancto, complemento Spiritus Sancti signatur servus
Christi." Dolger thinks that possibly " the Apostles con-
ferred Confirmation by that imposition of hands, and that
the anointment with chrism, as the external sign, was in-
troduced at their behest only towards the close of the
Apostolic age." * The assertion that Tertullian, Cyprian,
and Jerome knew nothing of the chrismatio, is rendered
doubtful by the express testimony of so many other Patris-
tic writers.

b) St. Thomas, Bellarmine, Gregory of Valen-
tia, Estius, Maldonatus, Nepef ny, and a few other
theologians contend that the anointing with
chrism {chrismatio) is the sole matter of Con-
firmation.

They base their argument on the Decretiim pro Ar-
menis, which says : " The second Sacrament is Con-
firmation, of which the matter is chrism, made of oil . . .
and balsam . . . blessed by the bishop." ^ This is also
the teaching of the Roman Catechism : " That such [1. e.
a mixture of oil and balsam! is the matter of this Sac-
rament, holy Church and her councils have always taught,
and the same has been handed down to us by St. Denis
and by many other Fathers of the gravest authority, par-
ticularly by Pope Fabian, who testifies that the Apostles
received the composition of chrism from the Lord and
transmitted it to us." ° This explanation is, however,

4 Dai Sakrament der Firmung, p. a Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 3, n. 7:
190. " Quod autem ea [scil. mixlura ex

5 " Secundum sacramentum est oleo et balsamo] sit hums sacramenti
confirmatio, cuius materia est chris- materia, cum S. Ecclesia et Concilia
ma confectum ex oleo . . . et bal- pcrpctuo docuerunt, turn a S. Diony-
samo . . . per episcopum benedicto." sio et complnrimis aliis gravissimis
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 697). Patribus traditum est imprimisgue a

290 CONFIRMATION

open to serious objections. The St. Denis who is quoted
as a witness, is none other than the Pseudo-Areopagite,
who was not a " disciple of the Apostles," as the School-
men believed, but a Christian pupil of the famous neo-
Platonist philosopher Proclus, who flourished in the latter
part of the fifth and the beginning of the sixth century.
The dictum attributed to Pope Fabian (236-250) is spuri-
ous. The Tridentine Council evaded the theological point
here at issue and contented itself with defending the use
of chrism against the attacks of the Protestant reformers.
It declared : " If any one saith that they who ascribe any
virtue to the sacred chrism of Confirmation offer an out-
rage to the Holy Ghost, let him be anathema." '^ This is
not tantamount to a dogmatic definition that the sacred
chrism is an essential element of Confirmation ; for the
canon quoted would remain valid even if the anointment
with sacred chrism were merely a symbolic ceremony in-
stead of a true sacramental rite. The chrismatio itself
was most fully developed in the Orient, where the laying-
on of hands gradually fell into entire desuetude, whereas
the Latin Church continued to emphasize the importance
of both rites. Professor Nepefny's contention ^ that the
" ancient Greeks " never laid on h^nds in conferring the
Sacrament of Confirmation, is disproved by the Egyp-
tian Church Ordinance,'* the newly discovered Testament
of Our Lord Jesus Christ,^" and the Arabic Canones

Fabiano Pontifice, qui Apostolos ma sit." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n,

chrismatis confcctionem a Domino 872).

accepisse nohisque reliquisse testa- S Die Firmung, pp. 124 sqq.,

tus est." Passau 1869.

7 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, De 9 Ed. Achelis, pp. 98 sq., Leipzig

Confirm., can. 2: "Si quis dixerit, 1891.

iniurios esse Spiritui Sancto eos, qui 10 Testamentum Domini Nostri

sacro confirmationis chrismati vir- lesu Christi, ed. Rahmani, pp. 129

tutem aliquant tribuunt, anathe- sq., Mainz 1899.

MATTER AND FORM 291

Hippolyti,^'^ three documents which, according to Funk's
exhaustive researches/- all grew out of the pseudo-
Apostolic Constitutions. The Egyptian Church Ordi-
nance and the Testamentum Domini Nostri lesii CJiristi,
both productions of the fifth century, speak of a two-
fold laying-on of hands, one with and the other with-
out the chrismatio}^

c) A third group of theologians, combining
the two opinions just reviewed, hold that the im-
position of hands and anointment with chrism
conjointly constitute the matter of Confirmation.
This opinion has a soHd basis in ecclesiastical
Tradition.

Since, however, the Latin rite of Confirmation com-
prises two distinct impositions of the hands — the exten-
sion of them (xeipoTovia) over all the candidates with
which the ceremony begins, and the individual laying-on of
hands (x^LpoOema) which takes place in the act of anoint-
ing,— most of the representatives of this group ^* regard
the latter rite as the essential matter of Confirmation.
The individual lay-ing-on of hands, they say, and the
anointing of the forehead with chrism, together consti-
tute but one rite. This opinion is confinned by the prac-
tice of the Greek Church, which employs but one impositio
manuum, namely, that which takes place simultaneously
with the anointment. The Oriental practice was expressly
approved by Benedict XIV in his Encyclical "Ex quo

11 Ed. Haneberg, pp. 76 sq., Miin- 13 Cfr. Dolger, Das Sakrament der
chen 1870. Firmung, pp. 81 sqq.

12 Das Testament unseres Hcrrn 1* Tournely is one of the few
und die verwandten Schriften, exceptions.

Mainz 1901.

292 CONFIRMATION

primum " (March i, 1756). He says: " No one is per-
mitted to assert that the Greek Church has not the Sacra-
ment of Confirmation. For if any one would hold this
opinion, he would be manifestly contradicted by the an-
cient Oriental discipline." ^^ His declaration gains weight
from the common consent of present-day Latin theologians
that the extensio vtanuum is not essential to the Sacra-
ment, and from the decision of the Propaganda (1840)
that Confinnation must not be repeated if that part of
the ceremony has been accidentally omitted.

d) According to Morinus, Tapper, and some
others, either the imposition of hands or the
anointing suffices to make the Sacrament valid.

These writers exemplify their theory by reference to
the Holy Eucharist, which, they say, may be validly re-
ceived under either species or under both. As no solid
argument can be adduced in support of this view, we may
disregard it.

Critical Estimate of the Four Opinions.
— Practically, of course, the minister of Confir-
mation is bound to proceed according to the Pon-
tiUcale Romanum. As for the theoretical ques-
tion here at issue, it can be best decided by adopt-
ing the opinion that the imposition of hands and
the anointment with chrism both appertain to the
essential matter of the Sacrament.

15 " Nemini fas est asserere in enim hanc opinionem tueretur, huic
Ecclesia gracca non adesse sacra- manifesto obstaret vetus orientalis
mentum confirmationis. Si quis disciplina." (§ 51).

MATTER AND FORM 293

The arguments of the first-mentioned group of authors
establish the necessity of the impositio manuum on the
basis of Sacred Scripture ; those of the second, prove the
indispensability of the anointment from the teaching of,
the Fathers and the practice of the ancient Church ; and
as the Greek Church knows no other xe'po^eo-ia besides
that which in the Latin Church takes place simultaneously
with the anointing, it follows that the impositio manuum
cum chrismatione coniuncta constitutes the essential mat-
ter of the Sacrament. This is the express teaching of
Innocent III ^^ and it is re-echoed in the profession of
faith of the Greek Emperor Michael Palseologus, read
before the Second Council of Lyons (1274)/^ In the
light of this teaching we can easily understand why the
Fathers often employed the terms confirmatio, unctio, and
manus impositio synonymously, and that this diversity of
usage argues no divergency in teaching.^^

2. The Materia Remota. — If the anointing
and the imposition of hands conjointly are the
materia proxima of Confirmation, the chrism
{chrisma, p-vpov) employed in the last-mentioned
portion of the rite must manifestly be its materia
remota.

a) Chrism is a mixture of olive oil {oleum olivarum)
and balsam (balsamum). In the Greek Church it also
contains an admixture of odoriferous herbs and a small

^oDccret., 1. I, tit. is, c. i, § 7: mando renatos." (Denzinger-Bann-

" Per frontis chrismationem manus wart, n. 465).
impositio designatur." 18 Cfr. on the subject of these dif-

17 " Aliud est sacramentum con- ferent opinions Heinrich-Gutberlet,

firmationis, quod per manuum im- Dogmatische Theologie, Vol. IX,

positionem episcopi conferunt chris- §516, and Dolgcr, Das Sakramettt

der Firmung, pp. 93 sqq., 188 sqq.

294 CONFIRMATION

quantity of wine. The principal ingredient, of course, is
the oil, which must be pure oil of olives. When the
Armenians were censured by the Council of Tarsus
(1177) for substituting oil of sesame, their only excuse
was that poverty compelled them to deviate from the tra-
ditional practice.^^

b) Must the chrism, in order to be valid matter
for Confirmation, necessarily be mixed with bal-
sam, and consecrated by a bishop ? Theologians
differ on these two points.

a) The Thomists, with the majority, regard the admix-
ture of balsam as essential, for the reason that the Bible,
the Fathers, and the Church in her official language call
mere olive oil alone not chrisma (/xvpov) but oleum
(e'Aatov). Many Scotists and a number of modern theo-
logians -° contend that the balsam is a requisite of licit
but not of valid administration. The use of balsam
as an ingredient of the sacred chrism cannot be proved
before the sixth century. ^^ Earlier writers speak simply
of oleum, which Pope Innocent I identifies with chrisma.
Optatus of Mileve applies oleum to unconsecrated, and
chrisma to consecrated oil, without an admixture of bal-
sam. Innocent III did not venture to declare Confirma-
tion administered with mere olive oil alone as invalid.
These and other reasons lead Kriill ^^ to conclude that the
use of balsam originated in the sixth century ,^^ and if this
be true, the necessity of mixing it with the oil can only be
de praecepto.

19 " Ex paupertate huic dero- 20 Notably Vitasse, Oswald, and

gamus traditioni." On the symboli- Simar.

cal meaning of the chrism see St. 21 Cfr. the Pseudo-Areopagite, De

Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, qu. Eccl. Hicr., c. 4, 3, § 4.

72, art. 2; N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakra- 22 In Kraus, Realenzyklop'ddie der

merit e der kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd christl. Altertiimer, I, 211.

ed., § 49. 23 Cfr. Dolger, Das Sakrament der

Firmung, pp. 96 sqq., 192 sq.

MATTER AND FORM 295

j8) Equally undecided is the question whether the
sacred chrism must be consecrated by a bishop. Pope
Benedict XIV declared it " beyond controversy " that " in
the Latin Church the Sacrament of Confirmation is ad-
ministered with sacred chrism or olive oil mixed with
balsam, and blessed by a bishop. . . ." -* Episcopal con-
secration of the chrism is regarded as essential by St.
Thomas-^ and his school, by Suarez,^'' and the majority
of modern theologians, on the ground that many Fathers "^
speak of the " blessed oil of anointment," and that popes
and councils have prescribed that the oil used for Con-
firmation be previously consecrated by a bishop."^

Whether a priest may be the extraordinary minister
of this blessing, and if so, under what conditions, is an-
other open question. Cajetan and Soto hold that the Pope
may delegate a priest for this purpose. Eugene IV is
said to have granted the privilege of consecrating the
sacred chrism to the Latin missionaries in India. The
deacon John, who lived in the sixth century,-" holds
that in case of necessity bishops can delegate their
power in this matter to priests.^" Whether or not these
accounts are reliable, one thing is certain : according to

24 Encycl. "Ex quo primum," d. 28 Cfr. Innocent I's Ep. 25 ad
I Mart. 1756, § 52: "Quod itaque Decent., c. 3: " Presbyteris sive
extra controversiam est, hoc dicatur : extra episcopum sive pracsente epi-
nimirum in Ecclesia latina con- scopo, quum baptisant, chrismate bap-
firmationis sacramentum conferri ad- tizatos ungere licet, sed quod ab
hibito sacro chrismate sive olco episcopo fuerit consecratum; non
olivarum balsamo admixto et ab tamen frontcm ex eodem oleo si-
episcopo bcnedicto ductoquc signo gnare, quod soils dcbctur episcopis,
crucis per sacramenti ministrum in quum tradunt Spiritum Parade-
fronte suscipientis, dum idem mi- turn." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 98).
nistcr formac verba pronuntiat." 20 Cfr. Migne, P. L., LIX, 403.

25 Summa Th., 3a, qu. 72, art. 3. 30 Cfr. Loffler, " Die Weihe dor hi.

26 De Confirm., disp. 33, sect. 2. Oele," in the Katholik, Mainz 1885,

27 E. g., SS. Basil, Cyril of Jeru- II, pp. 236 sqq.
salem, and Leo the Great,

296 CONFIRMATION

all the existing rituals, the sacred chrism may be conse-
crated by bishops only. In the Orient the privilege is
reserved to the Patriarch or Katholikos. Hence we may
reasonably conclude that chrism consecrated by a bishop
is an indispensable requisite for the validity of Confirma-
tion. Oswald treats the matter altogether too lightly
when he says : " The previous blessing of the elements
is probably a non-essential matter in all the Sacra-
ments." ^^ True, Baptism is valid even if the water is not
blessed. But, as Schell remarks, " In the case of Confir-
mation there is greater need that the element be blessed
than in the case of Baptism, because Confirmation
truly and properly confers the Holy Ghost. . . . This
explains the exalted rites employed in consecrating the
sacred chrism, the reverence with which it is handled,
and the express declaration of the Tridentine Council,
Sess. VII, De Confirm., can. 2. All this presupposes
a special dignity and power, which the Church at-
tributes to the sacred chrism in virtue of the blessing
bestowed upon it. It is proper, too, that the element
used in the anointing be blessed, since the hands of the
confirming minister must be consecrated, which is not the
case in Baptism." ^^

3. The Sacramental Form of Confirma-
tion.— Because of the uncertainty enveloping the
matter of Confirmation, the form, too, is in dis-
pute.

a) Speaking in the abstract, and taking the rite
as it is customary to-day, the form may be, either

31 Die dogmatische Lehre von den Paderborn 1892. Cfr. Dolger, Das
hi. Sakramenten, Vol. I, sth ed., p. Sakramcnt der Firmung, pp. loi
276, Miinster 1894. sqq., 193 sqq.

32 Dogmatik, Vol. Ill, p. 496,

MATTER AND FORM 297

a) The prayer "Omnipotens sempiterne Deus"
pronounced by the bishop at the general imposi-
tion of hands; or

/?) The words spoken by him when he anoints
the forehead of each candidate with chrism, viz.:
"I sign thee with the sign of the cross and con-
firm thee with the chrism of salvation, in the name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost."

Probably since the First Council of Constan-
tinople (381),^^ but surely since the TruUan
Council of 692,^^ the Eastern Church has em-
ployed this formula: "The sign [or seal] of the
gift of the Holy Ghost." "'

Though it is customary in some dioceses to lock the
door after the general imposition of hands, it may be
assumed with reasonable certainty that the prayer ac-
companying that ceremony does not enter into the es-
sential form of the Sacrament, since this preliminary
imposition itself does not constitute part of the essen-
tial matter. Consequently the true form must be sought
in the words pronounced at the anointing. This is, in
fact, the teaching of the Council of Florence.^*' The
present formula, " I sign thee with the sign of the cross,"
etc., is no older than the twelfth century.^^ Before

33 Can. 7. 37 Alexander of Hales (5. Th.,

34 Can. 94. IV, qu. 9, m. i) and Albcrtus Mag-

35 " Signaculum doni Spiriius nus {Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.
Sancti — ^(ppayis dwpeds Trvevfiaros 7, art. 2) still give different formu-
aylov." las, while St. Thomas (S. Th., 3a,

30 " Formo atitem est: Signo ie qu. 72, art. 4) and St. Bonavcnture
signo cruets, etc." (Denzinger- know but one, i.e. the one still in
Bannwart, n. 697). use.

298

CONFIRMATION

that time others were in use. According to Amalarius of
Metz (d. about 857), the Latin Church had no uniform
formula of Confirmation in the ninth century. The same
may be said of the Oriental churches, with the sole ex-
ception of the Greek, which has employed its present
formula ever since the sixth century.^^

b) Which particular words constitute the substance of
the formula is a purely theoretical question that can easily
be decided if we admit the Greek formula to be essen-
tially equivalent to the longer Latin one, and bear in mind
what was said in the first part of this treatise about the
specific determination of matter and fonn for all the Sac-
raments by Jesus Christ.^^ Manifestly the formula of
Confirmation must express two concepts, z'is.: (i) the act
of signing or sealing (signo te — o-^payis), and (2) the
grace of the Holy Ghost (confirmo te — Sojpfa? Trvevfiaro^
ajLov). Neither the invocation of the most holy Trinity
nor the words signo criicis and chrismate salutis are
essential.^" So far as we know, all the formulas ever in
use embodied these two leading ideas, at least implicitly.''^

The blow on the cheek (alapa) did not become custom-
ary until the twelfth century. It was apparently devised
in imitation of the blow by which knighthood was con-
ferred in the Middle Ages, to serve as a symbolic exhorta-

38 A collection of Confirmation
formulas may be found in Martene,
De Ant. Eccl. Ritib., 1. I, c. 2, art.
4; the Coptic, Syriac, and Armenian
rites are described by Denzinger,
Rit. Orient., I, 49 sqq., 209, 220
sqq., Wiirzburg 1863.

31) V. supra, pp. 107 sqq.

40 Making the sign of the cross on
the forehead of the recipient is part
of the materia of the Sacrament,
and probably essential. Cfr. St. Au-

gustine, Tract, in loa., 118, n. 5
(Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 1930).

41 On the subject of the matter
and form of Confirmation cfr. Mer-
lin, S. J., Traitc Historique et Dog-
matique sur les Paroles ou les
Formes des Sept Sacrcments, ch. 7-8,
Paris 1844 (uncritical) ; Chr. Pesch,
Praelect. Dogmat., Vol. VI, 3rd ed.,
pp. 234 sqq. ; Dolger, Das Sakra-
ment der Firmung, pp. 199 sqq.

MATTER AND FORM 299

tion to the recipient to follow the example of Christ in
suffering patiently '^^ and enduring contumely for His
sake.*^

42 Cfr. Mark XIV, 6s; John XIX, cheek is a sign of endearment and
3, that it was gradually substituted for

43 Acts V, 41. — Cfr. N. Gihr, op. the "kiss of peace" customary in
cit.. Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 360 sqq. olden times. {Op. cit., p. 155).
Dolger thinks that the blow on the

SECTION 3

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS

Confirmation by Its very name signifies the con-
summation of baptismal grace. The effect it pro-
duces is twofold: It increases sanctifying grace
and imprints the sacramental character.

I. Increase of Sanctifying Grace. — a)
Since Confirmation perfects the grace of Bap-
tism, it must be received in the state of sanctify-
ing grace. Hence Confirmation is a Sacrament
of the living; it does not produce the state of
grace but merely increases it (aiigmentum gratiae
sanctificantis, iiistificatio secunda).

The Council of Florence defines : " By Confirmation
we receive an increase of grace and are strengthened in
the faith." ^ This is in conformity with the Patristic
teaching that baptized persons become full-fledged Chris-
tians (pleni Christiani) through Confirmation; not as if
Baptism produced only " half-Christians " (semichristi-
ani) , as Calvin mockingly says, but as by growth children
develop into complete and full-grown men,

b) The specific grace of Confirmation {gratia
sacramentalis) consists in the " power of the Holy

1 Decretum pro Armenis: "Per et roboramur in fide." (Denzinger-
confirmationem augemur in gratia Bannwart, ti. 695).

300

SACRAMENTAL EFFECTS

■\qi

Ghost," by which the recipient is enabled to be-
lieve firmly and to profess the faith courageously.

" The effect of this Sacrament," says the Decretum pro
Armenis, " is that in it is given the Holy Ghost for
strengthening, as He was given tO' the Apostles on the
day of Pentecost, namely that the Christian may boldly
profess the name of Christ." " This was indeed the effect
produced by the descent of the Paraclete, as our Lord
Himself had foretold and promised. Acts 1,8: " You
shall receive the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon
you, and you shall be witnesses unto me in Jerusalem, . . .
even to the utmost part of the earth." ^ Though the
Apostles received this power without the Sacrament, the
faithful generally can obtain it only through Confirmation.

Confirmation imparts the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost,
particularly fortitude, which in extreme cases enables the
Christian soldier to lay down his life for the faith.^
As Doctor Schell aptly says : " Confirmation confers
and is intended to effect the possession and use of the
supernatural state of grace, the courageous practice of
faith, hope, and charity through wisdom, understanding,
counsel and strength, knowledge, piety, and the fear of
God. The ecclesiastical name for all these gifts is pozver,
— power to begin as well as to resist, to break down in-
ordinate self-love, thus enabling man with a free spirit

2 Ibid.: " Effecttis autcm huius
sacramenti est, quia in eo datur
Spiritus Sanctus ad rohur, sicut
datus est Apostolis in die Pente-
costes, itt vid. Christianus audacter
Christi confiteatur nomen." (Den-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 697).

3 Acts I, 8: " Accipietis virtutem
supervenientis Spiritus Sancti
(.diva/jLiu €iTeK66vTOS tov aylov

TTpevfiaros) in vos, et eritis mihi
testes {(laprvpes) «» Jerusalem , . .
usque in ultimum terrae."

4 Cfr. St. Ambrose, De Myst., c.
7, n. 42: " Unde repete quia ac-
cepisti signaculum spirituale, spiri-
tutn sapientiae et intellectus, spiritum
concilii et virtutis, spiritum cognitio-
nis atque pictatis, spiritum sanctum
timoris: et scrva quod accepisti,"

3o( . CONFIRMATION

to fear God alone, and to serve Him, proof against sen-
sual pleasure and human respect." ^

To effect this sublime purpose, Confirmation bestows a
right to all those actual graces which are necessary to
enable a man to fight for Christ and to defeat the enemies
of his salvation.''

In the Apostolic Church, Confirmation often bestowed
those extraordinary gifts (gratine gratis datae) known as
charismata, e. g. speaking in divers tongues, prophesying
future events, discerning good spirits from evil, etc.'^ The
existence of these gifts may be traced in the writings of
the sub-Apostolic Fathers, especially St. Ignatius of Anti-
och, St. Polycarp, St. Justin Martyr, and St. Irenaeus.
The charismata had ceased in the time of St. Chrysos-
tom, for reasons which St. Augustine indicates as follows :
" Who expects in these days that those on whom hands
are laid in order that they may receive the Holy Ghost,
should forthwith begin to speak with tongues? . . . He
[the Holy Ghost] was given in former days to be the
credentials of a rudimentary faith, and for the extension
of the first beginnings of the Church." ^

2. The Sacramental Character. — Like Bap-
tism, Confirmation imprints an indelible mark
or character on the soul, and therefore cannot
be repeated.

Theologians have not been able to agree on the specu-
lative question how this character differs from the one

5 Dogmatik, Vol. Ill, p. 507. tat, ut ii quibus mantis ad accipien-

6 On the relation between sane- dum Spirittim Sanctum imponitur,
tifying grace and sacramental grace repente incipiant Unguis loqui? , . .
in general, v. supra, pp. 70 sqq. Antea dabatur ad commendationem

7 Cfr. I Cor. XII, i sqq. rudis fidei et Ecclesiae primordia
S De Bapt. contr. Donat., Ill, 16, dilatanda."

2T. " Qtiis enim hoc mine exspec-

\ )

. )

■:■(■■

SACRAMEN tAl EFFECTS ■"-''\

imprinted by Baptism. Some; i?'' ^ng special emphasis on
the fact that Confirmation is "tEe consummation of Bar .
tism," argue that the sacramental character bestowed by '•
the one is simply a more perfect development of that im-
printed by the other. This opinion is, however, unaccept-
able because it fails to make sufficient allowance for the in-
dependent status of Baptism and for the fact that each
Sacrament has its own specific object. The character im-
printed by Baptism can undoubtedly exist by itself alone
and has no intrinsic need of being complemented by any
other. Moreover, its main function is specifically differ-
ent from that of the character of Confirmation. The one
effects spiritual regeneration, while the other causes spirit-
ual growth. Consequently there is a real distinction be-
tween the two. This can be made still clearer by apply-
ing to both the notion of the fourfold signum, explained
above.^ Thus, to mention but one, Confirmation qua sig-
num configuratiz'um marks the recipient as a sol-
dier of Christ, whereas Baptism designates him merely as
a subject. There is between the two a distinction as real
as that between a soldier's uniform and his coat-of-arms.^'^

9 V. supra, pp. 89 sqq. of the present Section consult ITein-

10 Cfr. Suarez, De Confirm., disp. rich-Gutberlet, Dogmatische Theo-
34, sect, I. — On the whole subject logie, Vol. IX, § 520.

'. t , se

i,i 'an.

'f. -I f>n.t

'•'I \PTER II

THE OBLIGATION Ob' RECEIVING CONFIRMATION

Confirmation is not necessary as a means of
salvation, and the precept to receive this Sacra-
ment does not obHge under penalty of mortal sin.
Nevertheless, the fact that Confirmation was in-
stituted by Christ is sufficient proof that it must
not be lightly neglected.

I. Confirmation is Not Necessary as a
Means of '1a.lv ation. — If Confirmation were
necessary for salvation necessitate medii, like Bap-
tism, an unconfirmed person dying in the state of
baptismal innocence could not be saved, — which is
contrary to the teaching of Trent ^ and to the prac-
tice of the Church.

Unconfirmed adults in danger of death are not given
the Sacrament of Confirmation, but that of Extreme
Unction, for the simple reason that Confirmation was
instituted for the battle of life, not for the death strug-
gle. This explains why a dying Christian who has never
been confirmed, is not required to have a desire {votum
sacramenti) for Confirmation, — a sure proof that the
Church does not regard Confirmation as a necessary means
of salvation.

1 Sess. V, can. s (quoted supra, p. 232).
304

OBLIGATK *\

RECEIVING

inz

2. Confirmation t;. Inkcessary Neces? n'
Praecepti. — The fact iliat ihis Sacrament w
stituted by the Saviour as, a means of grace -ti
the saving of souls pruv'c , that all men are ob' j^-'
to receive it, if they are i'ble. -.a

If Confirmation were merely jseful but not necessarj/
necessitate praecepti, why dio Christ institute it as tlic
complement and consummation of Baptism for all men?
In the early days the faithful were more deeply convinced
of the necessity of receiving this Sacrament than many are
to-day. Confirmation used to be administered to children
immediately after Baptism, as is still the practice among
the Greeks, and numerous conciliary decrees and papal de-
cretals insisted on the obligation of receiving it. Thus
the Council of Laodicaea (370) ord.iined: " It behooves
those who are illuminated, to be anointed after Baptism
with the supercelestial chrism, and to be made partakers
of Christ." -

As to the riature of the obligation, theologians are di-
vided. Some ^ regard neglect to receive Confirmation,
provided there be no positive contempt, as scarcely
even a venial sin. Others * take a more rigorous view.
St. Peter Damian (d. 1075) insists that the obligation to
receive this Sacrament is a serious one.^ Benedict XIV
teaches that it binds under pain of grievous sin.*^ Clement

2 Can. 48: " Oporlet eos, qui il-
luminantur, post baptisma inungi su-
percoclesti chrismate et esse Christi
participes."

3 Billuart, Chr. Pesch, Gihr, etc.,
and, among the moralists, Laymann,
Lehmkuhl, et al. They base their
teaching on St. Thomas, Summa
Theol., 3a, qu. 72, art. i, ad 3;
art. 8, ad 4.

4 E. g., Scotus {Comment, in

Sent., IV, dist. 7, qu. 2) and Tour-
nely.

c De Eccl. Dedic. Serm., i, c. 2:
" Dccretalcs paginae et S. Patrum
instituta decernunt non esse differ-
endam post baptismum sacramcnti
huius virtiitem, ne nos inermes in-
veniat fraudulcnitts illc contortor, a
quo nemo unqiiain noccndi inducias
extorsit."

0 Quoted by St. Alphonsus in his

3oy<i,

CONFIRMATION

J^^V, in 1774, approved a decree of the S. Congregation
01 'the Propaganda tO' the effect that " this Sacrament
canhot be refused or neglected without incurring the guilt
of mortal sin, if there be an opportune occasion of receiv-
ing it." ^ These utterances may not constitute a positive
ecclesiastical precept, binding under pain of mortal sin;
yet it is perhaps not too much to say that Confirmation is
indirectly necessary for salvation, and there is a grave
obligation to receive it, when possible. Simar justly ob-
serves : " The divine institution of this Sacrament is
proof sufficient that God wills every member of the
Church to receive it if he possibly can (praeceptum impli-
citum). The love that a Christian must have for his own
soul makes it appear a grave duty not to neglect so effi-
cacious a means of grace (necessitas medii indirecta)." ^
To-day when the faith is threatened by so many serious
dangers, its courageous profession against growing un-
belief becomes a sacred duty, and the faithful have
greater need perhaps than ever, since the days of the
martyrs, of the grace imparted by the Sacrament of
Confirmation.^

Theologia Moralis, 1. VI, n. 182:
" Manendi sunt ab Ordinariis loco-
rum eos gravis pcccati reatu teneri,
si iquum possunt) ad confinna-
tionem accedere renuunt ac negli-
gunt."

7 " Hoc sacramentum sine gravis
peccati reatu respui non potest ac
negligi, quum illud suscipiendi op-
portuna adest occasio."

8 Lehrbiich der Dogmatik, Vol. I,
4th ed., p. 827, Freiburg 1899: " Je-
doch schon durch die Einsetzung

dieses Sakramentes ist der gottliche
Wille, dass die Glieder der Kirche
dasselbe womoglich empfangen sol-
len, genilgend kundgetan {praecep-
tum implicitum) ; audi die christ-
liche Selbstliebe Idsst es als eine
schwerwiegende PMcht erscheinen,
dass man nicht ohne swingende
Griinde die Erlangung eines so wirk-
samen Gnadenmittels versdume
(necessitas medii indirecta)."

9 Cfr. Dolger, Das Sakrament der
Firmung, pp. 179 sqq.

CHAPTER III

THE MINISTER OF CONFIRMATION

The ordinary ministers of the Sacrament of
Confirmation are the bishops. In extraordinary
cases, simple priests can administer the Sac-
rament, though only with special powers from the
Pope. We shall demonstrate this in two theses.

Thesis I: The ordinary ministers of Confirmation
are the bishops.

This is de fide.

Proof. The schismatic Greeks, since Photius,
maintain that simple priests are the ordinary min-
isters of Confirmation ; but the Tridentine Coun-
cil expressly condemns this proposition.^

a) Sacred Scripture records no instance where the
Sacrament of Confirmation was conferred by any one but
an Apostle.

St. Peter and St. John faced the dangers of a religious
persecution to confirm the converts baptized by Philip the
deacon in Samaria. At Ephesus, St. Paul imposed his
hands on the twelve disciples of John after they had been

1 Cone. Trident., Sess VII, De pum, sed quemvis simplicem sacer-

Confirm., can. 3: " ^t quis dixcrit, dotem, anathema sit." (Denzinger-

sanctae confirmationis ordinarium Bannwart, n. 873).
ministrum non esse solum cpisco-

307

368 CONFIRMATION

baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus.^ Evidently, then,
the administration of Confirmation was an Apostolic, and
therefore episcopal, prerogative.

Tradition always so regarded it, as we have
previously shown.^

b) A conclusive argument may be drawn from the papal
instruction to Bishop Decentius of Eugubium (d. 417),
in which Innocent the First distinctly says that the
administration of the Sacrament of Confirmation is
an episcopal prerogative.* A remarkable example is fur-
nished by Pope St. Gregory the Great (d. 604). When
he learned that the priests of Sardinia administered Confir-
mation as though it were a right attached to the sacerdotal
office, Gregory, in a letter to the Bishop of Cagliari, con-
demned and forbade the practice.'^ This decision created
wide-spread dissatisfaction, and Gregory subsequently
wrote another letter in which, while recalling " the ancient
discipline of the Church " in support of his previous de-
cree, he benevolently acceded to the wishes of the Sardin-
ian people and allowed the clergy to continue to give Con-
firmation by special permission of the Holy See.*^

2 Cfr. Acts VIII, 14 sqq. ; Acts Petrum ct loannem esse directos, qui
XIX, I sqq. iatn baptisatis traderent Spiritum

3 V. supra, pp. 282 sqq. Cfr. Sanctum." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
Dolger, Das Sakrament der Firmung, 98).

pp. 24 sqq., 119 sqq., 201 sqq. 5 Epist., 1. IV, ep. 9: " Presby-

4 " De consignandis vero infan- teri baptizatos infantes signare sacro
ttbus manifestum est, non ab alio in frontibus cJirismate non praesu-
quani ab episcopo fieri licere ; nam mant, sed presbyteri baptizatos un-
presbyteri, licet secundi sint sacer- gant in pectore, ut episcopi post-
dotes, pontificatus tamen apicem modum ungere debcant in fronte."
non habent. Hoc autem pontificium (Migne, P. L., LXXVII, 677).
solis deberi episcopis, ut vcl con- 6 Cfr. St. Gregory the Great's
signent vel Paracletum Spiritum tra- Ep., 1. IV, ep. 26 ad lanuarium:
dant, non solum consuetudo ecclesi- " Pervenit quoque ad nos, quosdam
astica demonstrat, verum et ilia lectio scandalizatos fuisse, quod presbyteros

Actuum Apostolorum, quae asserit chrismatc tangere in fronte eos, qui

MINISTER 309

c) The ordinary power of administering Confirmation
is limited to the bishops, for two reasons. First, being a
Sacrament of lesser importance. Confirmation demands no
such universal and general prerogatives as Baptism, which
is absolutely necessary to all men for salvation. Sec-
ondly, being the Sacrament of " the plenitude of the
Spirit," Confirmation requires an administrator who has
himself received full power and consecration. To these
considerations St. Thomas Aquinas adds a third. " In
every work," he says, " the final completion is reserved
to the supreme act or power; thus the preparation of
the matter belongs to the lower craftsman, the higher
gives the form, but the highest of all is he to whom
pertains the use, which is the end of things made by art.
Thus also the letter which is written by the clerk, is signed
by his employer. Now the faithful of Christ are a divine
work, . . . and this Sacrament of Confirmation is, as it
were, the final completion of the Sacrament of Baptism ;
in the sense that by Baptism a man is built up into a
spiritual dwelling, and is written like a spiritual letter ;
whereas by the Sacrament of Confirmation, like a house
already built, he is consecrated as a temple of the fioly
Ghost, and as a letter already written, is signed with the
sign of the cross. Therefore the conferring of this Sac-
rament is reserved to the bishops, who possess the supreme
power in the Church. . . ." ^

The famous Jesuit theologian, Francisco Suarez, com-
pares the bishops to the generals of an army, and says that
in this capacity they have the sole right to enlist new re-
cruits for Christ. Only when the general (i. e. the

baptisati stint, prohibuimus. Et nos in frontibus bapt'dsatos chrismat*

quidem secundum vctcrcm Ecclcsiae tangcrc debcant, concedimus."

nostrae usum fccimus; scd si omniiio (Migne, /. c 696).

hac de re aliqui contristantur, ubi 7 Summa TheoL, 3a, qu. 72, art.

episcopi desunt, ut presbyteri etiam 11.

310 CONFIRMATION

bishop) is prevented, may the commander-in-chief (L e.
the Pope) delegate simple officers {i. e. priests) with the
power of conscription.^

Does the power of administering Confirmation belong
to the bishops by divine or merely by ecclesiastical right ?
This question has never been officially decided and is in
debate among theologians. Trombelli tries to show that
the episcopal prerogative of Confirmation rests entirely
on the Canon Law.*^ But despite the erudition which this
learned writer brings to bear on the subject, his argument
is by no means conclusive. The Fathers and early coun-
cils were plainly convinced that the episcopal prerogative
is based on a divine ordinance, and the Council of Trent
raised the proposition that bishops only are the ordinary
ministers of Confirmation, to the rank of a dogma, —
which it would hardly have done if the canonical precept
were not founded on a divine command.

Thesis II : In extraordinary cases simple priests can
administer Confirmation, but only with special powers
granted by the Pope.

This proposition may be technically qualified
as "sententia certaf

Proof. Hugh of St. Victor/'^ Durandus/'
and other Scholastic theologians deny the right of
the Supreme Pontiff to grant the special pov^er re-
ferred to ; but there is now no longer any reason
to doubt it. Thomists, Scotists, Bellarmine/^
Suarez/^ and De Lugo/^ all regard Confirmation

8 De Confirm., disp. 36, sect. 1. 11 Comment, in Sent., IV, dist.

0 De Sacram., dissert. 10, Bologna 7, qu. 3 sq.
1773. 12 De Confirm., c. 12.

10 De Sacram., II, 7, 2. is De Confirm., disp. 36, sect. 2,

liResp. Mor., I, dub. 6.

MINISTER 311

administered by simple priests with papal author-
ity as valid.

Our thesis cannot be demonstrated directly
from Sacred Scripture, and we therefore have to
rely on Tradition.

a) In the Greek Church simple priests have ad-
ministered Confirmation since the early days.

Though St. Chrysostom regards Confirmation as a " pre-
rogative ^^ of the coryphaei " {i e. bishops), he is aware
of its administration by ordinary priests. Long before
the time of Photius, Confirmation by simple priests had
been customary in the East, and the Western Church
accepted it as vaHd. The matter came up for debate in
the councils of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439). At
Florence the Oriental practice was vigorously defended
by the Bishop of Mytilene. Pope Eugene IV declared in
his famous Decretum pro Armenis: " However, we read
that sometimes, by a dispensation granted by the Apos-
tolic See for some reasonable and urgent cause, a simple
priest administered this Sacrament with chrism conse-
crated by a bishop." ^° This declaration did not, it is
true, justify the Oriental practice; but it showed that the
Holy See was aware of its existence and tolerated it.
Benedict XIV expressly acknowledged its validity — " be-
cause of at least a tacit privilege conceded by the Apos-
tolic See." " This rule still governs the practice of

■L^Supov i^alperov. V. supra, p. n De Syn. Dioec, VII, 9. 3 =

285. " In aliis locis, in quibus chris-

16 " Legitur tamcn aliquando per matio data a sacerdotibus graccis

ApostoHcae Sedis dispensationtm ex non est a Sedc Apostolica expresse

rationabili et urgente admodum caus& improbata, ea pro valida est habenda

simplicem sacerdotem chrismate per ob taciturn saltern privilcgium a Sede

episcopum confecto hoc admini- Apostolica illis concessum, cuius qui-

strasse confirmationis sacramenttim." dein privilcgii praesumptionem indu-

(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 697). cit ipsamet conniventia et tolerantia

312 CONFIRMATION

the Roman Church. Confirmation given by schismatic
Greek priests is never repeated except in countries or re-
gions from which the Holy See has expressly withdrawn
the privilege, e. g. Bulgaria, Cyprus, Italy, Sardinia, Sic-
ily, Corsica, and the Maronite districts about the Leb-
anon.^^

b) In the Latin Church Confirmation, as a rule,
has always been administered by bishops, and only
in exceptional cases by priests.

This practice, which is far more in conformity with
the dogmatic teaching defined at Trent, gained the
upper hand in the West after the thirteenth century, when
Baptism and Confirmation gradually became separated by
constantly lengthening intervals of time. The adminis-
tration of Confirmation by priests was and is compara-
tively rare, but cases have occurred in every century since
the time of Gregory the Great, though always with express
papal authorization and with chrism consecrated by bish-
ops. Since the Council of Trent the Holy See has at
various times granted the right to administer Con-
firmation to Jesuit missionaries, to the Custodian of the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, the Provost of St. Hedwig's
Church in Berlin, and other priests.^"

c) It is not easy to justify this exceptional prac-
tice in view of the fact that the validity of Confir-
mation has nothing to do with the power of juris-
diction, but depends entirely on the character of
ordination.

Romanorum Pontificum, qui prae- 18 Cfr. Dolger, Das Sakrament der

dictum morem Graecorum scienter Firmung, pp. 123 sqq., 203 sqq.
non contradixerunt nec unquam il- 19 Cfr. Billuart, De Confirm., art.

lum damnarunt," 7, §1; Benedict XIV, Dc Syn.

Dioec, VII, 7.

MINISTER 313

A deacon, for instance, could not validly administer this
Sacrament even with papal permission, whilst, on the
other hand, a heretical, schismatic, suspended, or excom-
municated bishop can do so even against the express com-
mand of the Pope. How, then, is it possible for a simple
priest to confirm validly, if the papal permit does not
supply the lack of episcopal consecration?

Various attempts have been made to overcome this
difficulty.

Some theologians have assumed that the papal dele-
gation is not a mere extrinsic permission but implies an
intrinsic perfectioning of the character of ordination by
which the delegated priest receives the episcopal char-
acter.^*^ Others hold with Suarez ^^ that the papal au-
thorization merely gives to the delegated priest a higher
extrinsic dignity which, together with his sacerdotal char-
acter, suffices to enable him to administer the Sacrament
validly. Both hypotheses are unsatisfactory. A simpler
and more effective solution is that devised by Gregory of
Valentia.^- It was the will of Christ, he says, that both
bishops and priests should be empowered to administer
Confimiation, the former as ordinary ministers of the Sac-
rament by virtue of the episcopal consecration, the latter
as its extraordinary ministers by virtue of the priesthood,
leaving it to the Pope to determine the manner of exercis-
ing this latent power.-^

20 Cfr. Der Katholik, Mainz are set forth by Benedict XIV, Dc
1894, I> PP- 271 sqq. Syn. Dioec, VII, 8. — On the whole

21 De Confirm,, disp. 36, sect. 2. subject of this Chapter see Chr.

22 Dc Confirm., disp. 5, qu. z, Pesch, Praelect. Dogmat., Vol. VI,
punct. I. 3rd ed., pp. 243 sqq.; Dolger, Das

23 Cfr. Bellarmine, De Confirm., Sakrament der Firmung, pp. 206
c. 12. — The reasons why a merely sqq.

episcopal delegation is insufficient,

CHAPTER IV

THE RECIPIENT OF CONFIRMATION

To be validly confirmed one must have been
previously baptized; to receive the Sacrament
worthily, one must be in the state of grace and,
if an adult, have at least a rudimentary knowl-
edge of the faith.

I. The Recipient Must Have Been Bap-
tized.— Since the right to receive the other Sac-
raments is conferred neither by the Baptism of
desire nor by the Baptism of blood. Baptism by
water is a necessary requisite of valid Confirma-
tion. Cornelius, the centurion, who received the
Holy Ghost before he was baptized, received only
the grace of Confirmation, not the Sacrament, nor
the character which it imprints. According to
indications contained in the Acts of the Apostles,
and the constant teaching and practice of the
Church, every baptized person, whether male or
female, young or old, well or ill, is a fit subject for
Confirmation.^

1 As to whether and in how far the ler, Pastoral-Psychiatrie, p. 163,
insane or feeble-minded are fit sub- Freiburg 1898.
jects for Confirmation, see J. Famil-

RECIPIENT 315

Regarding children, in particular, it is just as certain
that they can be validly confirmed as that they can
be validly baptized. The Greek Church still adheres to
the ancient practice of confirming infants immediately
after Baptism. The Latin Church seems to have pretty
generally followed the same rule up to the thirteenth cen-
tury. At the present time the only difference between
the two is that while in the Greek Church it is the priests
who confirm, in the Latin Church this Sacrament is ad-
ministered by the bishops. A Council held at Cologne,
A. D. 1280, decreed that Confirmation should be deferred
until the years of discretion. The Roman Catechism
declares that the administration of this Sacrament is
inexpedient until children have attained the use of rea-
son (which is between the ages of seven and twelve),
because " Confirmation has not been instituted as neces-
sary to salvation, but that by virtue thereof we might be
found very well armed and prepared, when called upon
to fight for the faith of Christ." " Nevertheless, the
Church has never made a law, nor is there any explicit
custom sanctioned by antiquity, which forbids the con-
firming of infants. On the contrary, bishops are free
to confirm little children, if they so please, as is evi-
dent from the Pontificale Romamim, which says: "In-
fants should be held by their sponsors on the right arm
before the bishop who wishes to confirm them." ^ Bish-
ops are generally guided in this matter by the custom of
the country.

2. The Recipient Must Not Have Been
Confirmed Before. — It is of faith ^ that Con-

2 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 3, n. 18. 4 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VII,

3 " Infantes per patrinos ante De Sacram., can. 9.

pontificem confirmare volentem te-

neantur in brachiis dextris."

3i6 CONFIRMATION

firmation imprints an indelible mark (character
indelebilis) on the soul, and therefore can not be
repeated. To reconfirm a person would be as
great a crime as to rebaptize him.

St. Cyprian's view that Confirmation administered by
a heretical minister is invaHd, and may therefore be re-
peated, was based on his erroneous belief (later con-
demned by the Church in connection with the Donatist
schism) that a Sacrament, in order to be valid, must be
administered by one who is a true believer and in the
state of sanctifying grace. The attitude of Pope Stephen
the First is uncertain. Though he condemned rebaptism,
he seems to have countenanced reconfirmation.^ Aside
from a few such uncertain cases, the Church can be
shown to have constantly held the belief that Con-
firmation by a heretical minister is valid. The " laying-
on of hands " of which we read in the writings of the
Fathers and the acts of councils in connection with the
return of heretics to the Church, was not the Sacrament
of Confirmation, but something we should now call a
" sacramental " — a ceremony of reconciliation, which
was sometimes accompanied by an anointment, " The
laying-on of hands in reconciliation," says St. Augustine,
'' is not, like Baptism, incapable of repetition ; for what
is it more than a prayer offered over a man ? " ^ In
order to avoid misunderstanding when reading the an-
cient Fathers and conciliary decrees, it is necessary in each
instance to ascertain from the context what is meant by

5 On this controversy cfr. Dolger, 6 Dc Bapt. con ft: Donat., Ill, i6:

Das Sakrament der Firmung, pp. " Manus impositio (scil. reconcilia-

130 sqq.; B. Poschmann, Die Sicht- toria) non sicut baptismus repeti

barkeit der Kirche nach der Lelire non potest; quid est cnim aliud nisi

des III. Cyprian, pp. 118 sqq., Pader- oratio super hominem? " (Migne,

born 1908. P. L., XLHI, 149).

RECIPIENT 317

the phrase '' laying-on of hands." There was a threefold
laying-on of hands in the primitive Church, to wit: (i)
the maiius impositio coniirmatoria, i. e. Confirmation,
which is a true Sacrament; (2) the manus impositio
ordinatoria, i. e. ordination, which is also a true Sacra-
ment; and (3) the mantis impositio reconciliatoria, i. e.
the ceremony of readmitting heretics to the Church, which
was no Sacrament at all, but merely what is now called
a sacramental/

3. The Recipient Must be Properly Pre-
pared.— To be duly prepared for Confirmation,
the candidate must first of all be in the state of
sanctifying- grace, because Confirmation is a Sac-
rament of the living.^

In addition there is required a knowledge of the rudi-
ments of the faith, more particularly of the Apostles'
Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the Seven Sacra-
ments, especially of the Church's teaching in regard
to Confirmation itself. To make sure that the would-
be recipients possess this knowledge, the bishop usu-
ally subjects them to an examination. The Church also
insists on the previous reception of the Sacrament of Pen-
ance and admonishes the candidates for Confirmation to
prepare themselves for the reception of the Holy Ghost by
pious prayer and an ardent desire," and, if possible, to
receive the Sacrament fasting.^"

Readings: — St. Thomas, Summa Thcologica, 3a, qu. 72, art. i-
12. — Billuart, De Confiiinalione (cd. Lcquctte, Vol. VI, pp. 345

7 Cfr. A. J. Binterim, Die vorciig- 8 V. supra, pp. 300 sqq.

Ikhstcn Dcnkwiirdifjkcitcn der 0 Cfr. Acts I, 14.

christ-kathoHschen Kirchc, V, 2, pp. 10 Cfr. Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 3, n.

299 sqq., 453 sqq., Mainz 1836. 18.

3i8 CONFIRMATION

sqq.). — Bellarmine, De Sacramento ConHrmationis, c. 1-27 (ed.
Fevre, Vol. Ill, pp. 588 sqq., Paris 1870).

Other literature see under Baptism, p. 275, supra.

Monographs: I. A. Orsi, O.Pr., De Chrismate Confirmatorio,
Rome 1733; M. Gerbert, O.S.B., De Sacranientis, Praesertim
Coniirmatione, S. Blasien 1764; Jos. Bertieri, De Sacramentis
in Genere et de Baptismo et Confirmatione, Vienna 1774; *Vi-
tasse, De Sacramento C oniirmationis Libri VIII (in Migne's
Theologiae Cursus Completiis, Vol. XXI, pp. 546 sqq.) ; Fr.
Brenner, Gcschichtliche Darstellung der Verrichtung und Aus-
spendung der Firmung, Bamberg 1820; Welz, Das Sakrament
der Firmung, Breslau 1847; B. Nepefny, Die Firmung, Passau
1869; G. Bickell, "Das Sakrament der Firmung bei den Ne-
storianern," in the Innsbruck Zeitschrift fiir kath. Theologie, 1877,
pp. 85 sqq. ; L. Janssens, O.S.B., La Confirmation, Expose
Dogmatique, Historique et Liturgique, Lille 1888; M. Heimbu-
cher, Die heilige Firmung, das Sakrament des HI. Geistes, Augs-
burg 1889; M. Meschler, S.J., Die Gaben dcs hi. PUngstfestcs,
Sth ed., Freiburg 1905 ; A. F. Wirgman, The Doctrine of Con-
firmation, London 1902 ; *Fr. Dolger, Das Sakrament der Fir-
mung, Vienna 1906.

T. B. Scannell, art. " Confirmation," in Vol. IV of the Catholic
Encyclopedia. — F. H. Chase (Anglican), Confirmation in the
Apostolic Age, London 1909. — A. Devine, C.P., The Sacraments
Explained, pp. 158 sqq., 3rd ed., London 1905. — W. Humphrey,
S.J., The One Mediator, pp. 99 sqq., London 1890. — J. R. Gasquet,
" The Early History of Baptism and Confirmation," in the Dublin
Review, 1895, pp. 116 sqq. — L. Duchesne, Christian Worship, pp.
292 sqq., London 1903. — P. Pourrat, Theology of the Sacra-
ments, passim, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1914. — J. Tixeront, History of
Dogmas, Vol. I, St. Louis 1910, Vol. II, 1914. — M. O'Dwyer, Con-
firmation: A Study in the Development of Sacramental Theol-
ogy, Dublin 191 5.

INDEX

Ablutions, 78, no, 216, 217 sqq.

Abraham, 20, 22.

Achillia, 273.

Adam, 19, 20, 233, 265.

Adiuratio daenioniim, 117, 120.

Administration, Requisites of

valid, 162 sqq.; Requisites of

worthy, 188 sqq.
Agrippinus of Carthage, 172 sq.
Alapa, 298 sq.
Albertus Magnus, 134, 181.
Albigenses, 167, 278.
Alcuin, 112.

Alexander III, 35, 225.
Alexander VIII, 186.
Alexander, Bishop, 180.
Alexander of Hales, loi, 113,

134, 144, 181.
Alphonsus, St., 227.
Alterations in the formula of

Baptism, 225 sqq.
Amalarius of Metz, 298.
Ambrose, St., 16, 54 sqq., 80,

210, 222, 231, 246, 247.
Amort, Eusebius, 71.
Amphilochius, St., 164.
Anabaptists, 268.
Andrea, Jacob. 39.
Andrew, St., 211.
Angels, 75, 80, 90, 93, 163, 164,

Anointing with chrism (see

Clirismatio).
Ansclm of Laon, 34.
Antonio de Dominis, 278.
Apostles, The, loi sqq., 104,

106, 108, 114, 20g sq., 211,

223 sq., 255 sq., 280, 281, 285,

287, 289.

Apostolic Constitutions, 252,

291.
Armenians, 294.

Aspersion, Baptism by, 217, 22l.-
Athanasius, St., 180, 233.
Attrition, 194 sq., 201 sq.

Audientes

genniiectentes —'

competentes, 240.

Augsburg Confession, 123, 136,
137.

Augustine, St., 6, 7, 8, 12, 13,
19, 20, 24, 34, 53, 56, 61,
79, 80, 84, 88, 89, 93, 104 sqq.,
131, 140, 141 sq., 163, 168 sq.,
170, 173, 174, 180, 192, 194,
197, 201, 210, 215, 218, 222,
229, 231, 235, 246, 247, 250,
251, 260, 261, 262, 266, 271
sq., 282, 302, 316.

Aureole, 252.

Aureolus, 71, 183.

Bajus, 244.

Balsam, 293 sq.

Baptism, 9, 14, 15, 17, 23, 2J.
26, 32, 33, 36, 39, 42, 47, 48,
49. SO, 52, 53, 60, 63, 67, 68,
71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 83, 85, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94,
95, 103, 104, 105, 107, no, ni,
126 sq., 129 sqq., 133 sq., 139,
140, 141, 142, 148 sq., 150, 153
sq., 155, 156, 164, 165, 168 sq.,
170, 172 sqq., 180 sq., 186, loi,
192, 194, 201 sq. — Definition
of, 204; Divine institution,
206 sqq.; Prefigured in the O.
T., 206 sqq.; Admitted by all

319

320

INDEX

heretical sects, 208; When in-
stituted by Christ, 209 sqq. ;
Matter and form, 213 sqq.;
The baptismal water, 213
sqq.; Abkition, 217 sqq.; The
formula of, 221 sqq. ; B. in
the name of Jesus, 223 sq. ;
Alterations in the baptismal
formula, 225 sqq. ; Sacramen-
tal effects, 228 sqq. ; Grace of
justification, 228 sqq. ; Remis-
sion of punishments due to
sin, 231 sqq.; The baptismal
character, 234 sqq. ; Necessity
of, 238 sqq. ; B. of desire,
243 sqq. ; Of blood, 2^8 sqq. ;
The Minister of, 254 sqq. ;
The Recipient, 265 sqq.

Baptismal font. Blessing of the,
114, 215.

Baptism of Christ vs. that of
John the Baptist, 230 sq.

Baptismus clinicoriim, 218.

Bap tismus ilummis — Aaminis
— sanguinis, 238 sqq.

Baptisteries, Ancient, 219.

Baptists, 268.

Basil, St., 173, 222, 236, 240, 261,
28s.

Basnage, 278.

Beer, Not valid matter for bap-
tising, 215.

Bellarmine, Card, 13, 17, 23, 25,
44, 118, 152, 289, 310.

Bellelli, 18.

Benedict XIV, 109, 267, 291 sq.,

29s, .305, 311-

Benediction, 117.

Berengarius, 35.

Bernard, St., S4> S6 sq., 210,
247.

Berti, 146.

Billot, Card, 158 sq.

Billuart, 72, 87, 145.

Bishops, 283, 295, 307 sqq.

Blessed objects, 119.

Blessings, 144 sqq.

Blood, Baptism of, 248 sqq.

Blow on the check at Confir-
mation, 298 sq.

Bonaventure, St., ^y, 49, 68,
loi, 102, 134, 144, 157, 181,
212, 252.

Boniface, St., 226.

Bonus motus cordis, 137 sq.

Bruno of Asti, St., 16.

Bulgarians, 224.

"Burial of the Dead" as a Sac-
rament, 42.

Caecilian of Carthage, 168.
Cajetan, Card., 75, 158, 197, 295.
Callistus, Nicephorus, 164.
Calvin, 33, 122, 123, 136, 278,

300. _
Calvinists, 39.
Cano, Melchior, 152.
Canones Hippolyii, 291.
Capital punishment, 234.
Capital sins, 50.
Carthage, Council of, (253)

271 ; (416) 240.
Catacombs, 272 sq.
Catechism, Roman, 15, 30, 64.

204, 224, 233. 234, 257, 289,

315-

Catechumenate, 240 sq., 240 sq.

Catechumeni — competentes —
electi, 240 sq.

Cathari, 23, 215.

Catharinus, Ambrosius,' 177, 183
sqq.

Causes, 143 sqq.

Character dominiciis, 79, 92.

Character, The Sacramental,
Existence of, 76 sqq. ; Its du-
ration, 81 sqq. ; In what it
consists, 84 sqq. ; Where it re-
sides, 87 sq.; Its object, 88
sqq. ; Connection between —
and grace 93 sq. ; Why it is
conferred by only three of
the Sacraments, 94 sq. ; Is it
the physical medium of
grace? 156 sq. ; Is merely a
gratia gratis data, not gra-
tiim facicns, 200; Of Bap-

INDEX

321

tism, 234 sqq. ; Of Confirma-
tion, 302 sq., 315 sq.

Charismata, 282, 302.

Charity, Perfect, 244.

Charles Borromeo, St., 220.

Chemnitz, 76, 136, 286.

Chrism, 289 sq., 293 sqq.

" Chrisma Cyrilliaiiiivi," 286.

Chrismatio, 288 sqq.

Christ, 29, 27, 63, 75, 79, 91, 92,
94, 97 sqq., 119, 129, 130, 13s,
146 sqq., 161, 164 sq., 170, 174,
179, 181, 207 sqq., 214, 215,
222, 223, 226, 228, 230, 231,
232 239, 244 sq., 249 sq.

" Christen," 226.

Chrysostom, St. John, 53, 80,
130, 153, 163, 169, 216, 222
sq., 231, 235, 251, 285, 302,

311.
Church, 34, 106, 108, 114, 117,

118, 119, 178 sqq., 201.
Circumcision, 9, 20, 22 sqq., 27,

61, 206, 270 sq.
Clairvaux, Council of (1268),

35-
Clement XIV, 305 sq.
Clement of Alexandria, 235.
Collyridians, 263.
Cologne, Council of (1280), 35,

315.
Compiegne, Council of (757),

262.
Communion, 14, 15, 17, 132, 140,

163, 198 sq., 203, 243.
Concupiscence, 229 sq.
Condition, 144.
Confcctio, 182.
Confession among schismatics,

175-
Confirmation, 28, 32, 36, 39, 42,
47, 49. SO, 52, S3, 60, 68, 69,
71, 72, 76, 77, 78, 80, 89, 90,
91, 92, 94, 95, loi, 104, 107,
108, 109, 127, 132, 150, 170,
174, 19s. 202, 204. — Name,
276; Definition, 276 sq. ; Di-
vine institution, 278 sqq. ;
Matter and form, 288 sqq. ;
Sacramental effects, 300 sqq. ;

Obligation of receiving, 304

sqq. ; Minister of, 307 sqq. ;

Recipient, 314 sqq.
Consecration, 117, 119, 180, 183,

184.
Consecrationcs — benedictiones,

117, 119 sq.
Constance, Council of (1418),

36, 167.
Constantinople, First Council of

(381), 297.
Contenson, 183.

Contrition, Perfect and imper-
fect, 202, 244 sq., 249.
Coresius, 40.
Corinthians, 267.
Cornelius, Centurion, 245, 246,

256, 314-
Cornelius, St., Pope, 180, 284.
Corpse cannot be baptized, 267.
Corruption of the Sacramental

Form, no sq.
Crusius, Martin, 39.
Cumont, 285.
Cyprian, St., 132, 172 sq., 215,

218, 219, 222, 245, 250, 251,

261, 271 sq., 283, 285, 289,

316.
Cyril of Alexandria, St., 130.
Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 52, 53,

72, sq., 80, 81, 129, 240, 250,

285 sq.
Cyrillus Lucaris, 39 sq.

Dallaeus, 278.

Damascene of Thessalonica, 42.

David, 244.

Deacon, The extraordinary

minister of solemn Baptism,

257 sq.
Deaconesses, 221.
De Augustinis, 152.
Dccentius of Eugubium, 308.
Decretum pro Armenis, 49, 62,
63, 64, 94, 178, 185, 221, 226,

228, 236, 255, 262, 264, 289,

301, 311-

322

INDEX

De Lugo, lo, 26, 68, 84, 93, 152,
155, 310.

De Rebaptismate, 245.

Desire, Baptism of, 243 sqq.

Determinatio generica — speci-
fica — individua, 107 sqq.

Didache, 219.

Dionysius the Great of Alex-
andria, 173.

Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopa-
gite, 42, 289 sq.

Discipline of the Secret, 51, 53.

Diseases of the soul, 49 sq.

Disposition of the Recipient,
73 sqq., 125 sq., 142.

Dispositio spiritualis, 158 sq.

Dolger, 285, 289.

Dominica in albis, 241.

Domitian, 249.

Donatists, 79, 89, 166, 168 sq.,
173, 192, 246, 261, 316.

Donatus the Great, 168.

Drouin, 152, 183.

Duhamel, 183.

Durandus, 84, 182, 310.

Ebed Jesu, 42.

Effects common to all the Sac-
raments, 66 sqq. ; Of Bap-
tism, 228 sqq. ; Of Confirma-
tion, 300 sqq.

Effusion, Baptism by, 217, 218,
219, 220 sq.

Egyptian Church Ordinance,
290 sq.

Eleusinian Mysteries, 7.

Emerentiana, St., 251.

Encratites, 173.

'Eirepwr-qiJia^ 148 sq.

Ephraem, St., 81.

Epiphanius, 263.

Erasmus, 273.

Estius, 210, 289.

Eucharist, Holy, 28, 32, 33, 36,
39, 42, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54, 60,
63, 64, 68, 69 sq., 72, 74, 83,
95, 103, 104, 105, 107, 127,
132, 139, 145, 153, 162, 169,
196, 198 sq., 202, 256, 292.

Eugene IV, 10, 49, 59, 60, 182,
185, 221, 228, 295, 311.

Ex op ere operantis, 118.

Ex opere operato, 73, 113, 114,
IIS, 117, 122, 123, 124, 125
sqq., 132, 135 sqq., 144, 170,
195, 202.

Exorcisms, 114, 117.

Extreme Unction, 17, 28, 3^, 36,
37, 39, 42, 48, 4p, 50, 52, 60,
68, 69, 83 sq., 95, loi, 103,
104, 127, 150, 191, 196, 199,
202, 304.

" Eyes of God," The seven, 50.

Fabian, Pope, 289 sq.

Fabius of Antioch, 180.

Faith, 128, 208, 229.

Farvacques, 183, 186.

Feet, Washing of, 54 sqq., 114.

Felix of Aptunga, 168.

Fidelis intentio, 184.

Fidus, 271.

Firmilian of Caesarea, 172 sq.

Fishes, The faithful compared

to, 217.
Fitness of Sacraments under

the New Law, Reasons for,

30 sqq.
Florence, Council of (1439),

10, 26, 36, 38, 59, 76, 220, ^59,

268, 297, 300, 311.
Fiorina, 272.
Foetus, 265.
" Pons patens'' 214.
Form, of Baptism, 221 sqq. ; Of

Confirmation, 296 sqq.
Franzelin, Card., 152, 184.
Fraticelli, 167.
Funk, F. X., 241, 291,

Gabriel of Philadelphia, 40.
Gelasius L 258.
Georgios Protosynkellos, 40.
Gifts of the Holy Ghost, 50,

229 sq., 301 sq.
Gihr, N., 15Z

INDEX

323

Glossner, 183.

Gnostics, 8, 208, 215, 286.

Goethe on the Sacraments, 44

sqq.
Grabmann, 34.

Gratia sacranientalis, 66, 70 sqq.
Greek Schism, 38 sq.
Gregory I, the Great, St., 112,

189, 220, 231, 308, 312.
Gregory IX, 215.
Gregory X, 36.
Gregory of Bergamo, 35.
Gregory of Nazianzus, St., 169

sq., 210, 230.
Gregory of Nyssa, St., 215.
Gregory of Valentia, 289, 313.
Gutberlet, 133, 152.

Haas, L., 183.

Harnack, 80, 114, 115, 117, 132,

133, 140, 141, 204, 206.
Herbord, 34.
Heretics, Baptism administered

by, 261 sq.
"Holy Ferment," 4^.
Holy Ghost, 276, 279 sqq., 300

sqq.
Holy Water, 117, 118.
Hugh of St. Victor, z^, lOi,

113, 181, 310.
Hunter, S. J., 43, 270.
Hus, 2,^, 38.
Hussites, 167, 278.
Hypostatic Union, 29, 92, 99.

ICONIUM, Council of, 172 sq.
Ignatius, St., of Antioch, 302.
Immersion, Baptism by, 217 sq.,

219, 220.
Imposition of hands, 276, 281

sq., 288 sq., 297, 316 sq.
Indulgences, 114, 115, 119.
Infant Baptism, 132, 134, 268

sqq.
Infant communion, 132.
Infants can be confirmed, 315.
Innocent I, 53, 240, 282 sq., 294,

308.

Innocent HI, 23, 25, 35, 7^, I34,
182, 184, 198, 247, 252, 293,

294-

Innocent XI, 190.

Innocents, The holy, 251.

Instrumentum adaequatum gra-
tiae, 166.

Infentio, actualis — virtiialis —
habitualis — interpretativa —
directa — rcUexa — mere ex-
terna, 176 sqq., 183 sqq.

Intentio faciendi quod facit
Ecclesia, 181 sq., 185.

Intention, Of the Minister, 64
sq., no; Definition of, 175
sqq. ; Necessity of, 175 sqq. ;
Of the Recipient, 196 sqq.

Irenaeus, St., 132, 251, 272, 302.

Isidore, St., 112, 258, 262.

InstiUcatio prima — secunda, 68
sqq., 201 sqq., 228 sq.

Jacobites, 215.

James, St., 103.

Jeremias of Constantinople, 39.

Jerome, St., 260, 282, 289.

Jerusalem, Schismatic council

of (1672), 261.
Jesus, Baptism in the name of,

223 sq.
Job of Thessalonica, 42.
John, St. (the Evangelist), 126,

211, 249, 281, 283 sq., 307.
John, St. (the Baptist), 207,

210, 211, 214, 224, 230 sq.
John the Deacon, 295.
Juenin, 183.
Justification, i, 24, 122 sq., 126,

128, 130, 136, 138, 147, 196

sq., 228 sqq., 244.
Justin Martyr, St., 302,

Katschthaler, Card., 152.
Kriill, 294.

Langton, Stephen, 35.

324

INDEX

Laodicaea, Council of (370),

305.
Lateran, Fourth Council of the

(1215), 259.
Latin language, Use of in the

administration of the Sacra-
ments, 112 sq.
" Laver of regeneration," 126

sq., 217 sq., 233 sq., 244.
Law of Nature, State of the,

19 sqq.
Laymen, Baptism administered

by, 260 sqq.
Leo the Great, St., 130 sq.
Lex orandi, lex credendi, 54.
Lion, Baptized, 265.
Loisy, Alfred, 103.
London, Council of (1272), 35.
Lord's Supper, 32.
Lotio pedum, 54 sqq., 114.
Lugo, Card., 64.
Luther, 32, 22>, 43, 122, 123, 133,

134, 138, 140, 164, 165, 183,

213, 278.
Lutherans, 39, 132 sq., 134, 138.
Lyons, Second Council of

(1274), 36, 38, 293, 311.

Magdalen, 245.

Magic efifect attributed to the
Sacraments, 136 sq., 140, 146.

Magnus, 218.

Majorinus, 168.

Maldonatus, 289.

Maltzew, Provost, 40.

Mandate to baptize, 239, 255 sq.,
265.

Manichaeans, 208,

Marcosians, 215.

Marcus Eugenicus, 220.

Martin V, 36, 182, 184.

Martin of Bracara, St., 220.

Martyrdom can supply the place
of Baptism, 248 sqq.

Martyrs, 248 sq.

Mary, B. V., 130 sq.

Mass, The, i, 179, 184.

Matter and Form of a Sacra-
ment, 59 sqq., 107 sqq.

Matrimony, 7, 18, 19, 28, 32,

36, 2,7, 39, 42, 48, 49, 50, 52,
54, 63, 64, 68, 69, 83, 95, 104,
109, 150, 156, 157, 164, 165,
179, 191, 196, 199, 202.

Meaux Council of (845), loi.

Melanchthon, 2>2„ 278.

Meletius Syrigus, 40.

Mennonites, 55, 268.

Messias, 21.

Michael Palaeologus, 2,6, 293.

Mileve, Second Council of
(416), 269.

Minister of a Sacrament,
Worthiness of the, y;^ sqq. ;
Intention, no; Person of the,
162' sqq. ; Must be duly quali-
fied, 164 sqq. ; No one can ad-
minister a Sacrament to him-
self, 166; Validity of a Sac-
rament does not depend on
personal holiness of the, 166
sqq. ; Nor on his orthodoxy,
171 sqq. ; Necessity of a right
intention, 175 sqq. ; Requisites
of worthy administration, 188
sqq.; Of Baptism, 254 sqq.;
Of Confirmation, 307 sqq.

Mithra, Cult of, 30, 285.

Modernism, 103, 139.

Mogilas, Peter, 40.

Mohler, 135.

Monophysites, 41.

Montanists, 225.

Morgott, 184.

Morinus, 292.

Mosaic Law, Sacraments of the,
26 sqq.

Moses, 20, 21, 26 sqq., 214.

Murtius Verinus, 272.
MvcTTTjpiov^ 5 sqq.

Necessity, Of Baptism, 238
sqq. ; Of Confirmation, 304
sqq.

Neocaesarea, Council of (be-
tween 314 and 325), 240.

Neophytes, 216.

Nepefny, 289, 290.

Nerva, 219.

INDEX

325

Nestorians, 41, 42, 287.

Nestorius, 43.

New Testament, Sacraments of
the, vs. those of the Old, 8,
10, 16 sqq., 18 sqq., 29 sqq.,
61 sq., 144 sq.

Nicene Council (First), 261.

Nicholas I, 224, 262.

Nicodemus, 207, 210.

Nominalists, 182.

Norwegians, 215.

Novatian, 180, 284.

Novatians, 278.

Obex gratiae, 69, 125 sq., 136,
156, 193 sqq., 202 sq.

Occasion, 144.

Ockam, 17.

Odo of Paris, 35.

Oil, Not valid matter for bap-
tizing, 215; As matter in
Confirmation, 289 sq., 293 sqq.

Old Testament, Sacraments of,
8 sq., 10 sq., 16, 61, 105, 144
sq.

Optatus of Mileve, St., 168, 294.

Opus opcrans — opus operatiim,
135 sq.

Orders, Holy, 28, 32, 35, 2^, 37,
42, 48, 49, 50, 52, 68, 69, 76,
77, 78, 80, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94,
95, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109,
127, 150, 164, 168, 170, 174,
191, 195, 199.

Ordination, Difference in rite
of, 109 sq.

Origen, 132, 168, 272.

Original Sin, 20, 21, 23 sqq., 228
sqq., 247, 265, 271.

Ornatus animae, 158 sq.

Orthodoxy not a requisite for
the valid reception of tlie Sac-
raments, 171 sqq., 192 sqq.

Oswald, 152, 183, 296.

Otto of Bamberg, St., 34. 38.

Oxford, Council of (1222), 35.

Paedoraptismus (see Infant
Baptism).

Paganism, 114 sq.

Palestine, 242.

Paludanus, 71, 75.

Paradise, The quasi-Sacra-
ments of, 18 sqq.

Parallels to the Christian Sac-
ments in the ethnic religions
of antiquity, 30.

Parthenius, 40.

Passion, 210, 211, 212, 279.

Paul, St., 7, 15, 25, 26, 61, 77
sq., 112, 140, 179, 201, 210, 218,
221, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236,
263, 267, 307.

" Pecca fortiter, crede fortius,
138.

Pelagians, 240, 271.

Penance, 17, 28, 32, 36, 37, 39,
42, 48, 49, 50, 52, 63, 64, 68,
84, 95, 103, 104, 108, 114, 115,
127, ISO, 172, 174, 179, 191,
192, 195, 196, 201 sq., 203, 244,
261.

Pentecost, 209, 218, 24:2 sq., 256,

279, .301.
Pepuzians, 173.

Personal Sanctification, 9 sq.
Pesch, Chr., 152.
Peter Damian, St., 305.
Peter Lombard, 8, 9, 36, 37, 49.

91, 101,223.
Peter of Poitiers, 134.
Peter, St., 148, 165, 211, 256,

280, 283 sq., 307.

Philip, The deacon, 214, 258,

281, 285, 307.
Photius, 38, 41, 307, 311.
Pierre de B'ruys, 198.
Pignus Spiritus, 78 sq.
Piu'S X, 103.

Poenac — poenalitates, 234.

Polycarp, St., 302.

Pontiftcale Roiiianum, 257, 292,

315.

Poore, Richard, 35.

Postponing Baptism to an ad-
vanced age, or to death, 268.

Potcntia obedientialis, 145.

Potestas auctoritatis — excel-
lentiae — jninisterii, 98 sqq.,
106.

326

INDEX

Pourrat,S2, 54, 80, 1-23.

Power, Threefold, In regard to
the institution of the Sacra-
ments, 98 sqq., 106.

Preparation necessary to re-
ceive the Sacraments, 125 sq.

Priest, The ordinary minister
of Baptism, 255 sq. ;; The ex-
traordinary minister of Con-
firmation, 310 sqq.

Priesthood, 90, 92 sq., 94, 165,
170, 256, 282.

Private Baptism, 254, 259 sqq.

Prochis, 290.

Propaganda, S. C. of, 292, 306.

Protestant errors regarding the
Sacraments, 32 sq., 112 sq.,
132 sqq., i;^5, 136 sq., 138, 278,
282.

Pseudo-Ambrose, 104, 130.

Punishments due to sin remit-
ted by Baptism, 231 sqq.

QUINTILLA, 263.

Rabbinism, 114.

Radulphus Ardens, 34.

Rebaptism, 168, 172 sqq., 235,
261.

Recipient, Of a Sacrament, Dis-
position of the, Tz sqq., US;
Requisites of valid reception,
191 sqq. ; Requisites of vi'Orthy
reception, 200 sqq. ; Of Bap-
tism, 265 sqq. ; Of Confirma-
tion, 314 sqq.

Refusing the Sacraments, Duty
of, 189 sq.

Regeneration, Spiritual, 67, 214,
216, 239.

Remission of punishments due
to sin, an effect of Baptism,
231 sqq.

Reniolio obicis (see obex gra-
tiac).

Res et vcrbum, 59 sqq., 62 sqq.

Reviviscence of the Sacra-
ments, 156 sqq., 193 sqq.

Rhabanus Maufus, 112'.
Roland, Master, 3S.

Sacramenta consecratoria—^-
medicinalia, 52.

Sacramental Ceremonies, iii>
139, 241.

Sacramental Grace, 66, 70 sqq^

Sacramentals, iii sqq.; Classi-
fication of, 116 sq. ; Efficacy
of, 117 sqq., 231.

" Sacrament of Nature," 20
sqq., 242 sq.

Sacraments, Visible means of
grace, i, 54; Definition, 5
sqq. ; Signs, 12 sqq. ; Of Par-
adise, 18 sqq.; Of the state
of the law of nature, 19 sqq.;
Of the Mosaic law 26 sqq. ;
Three essential constituents,
58 sqq. ; Matter and form, 59
sqq.; Sacraments of the liv-
ing and of the dead, 68 sqq.,
201 sqq. ; The Sacramental
Character, 76 sqq. ; The Sac-
raments instituted by Christ,
97 sqq. ; Efficacy, 121 sqq. ;
Physical or moral causes of
grace? 143 sqq. ; The minister
of, 161 sqq. ; Person of the,
162 sqq. ; Requisites of valid
administration in, 166 sqq. ;
Necessity of a right inten-
tion, 175 sqq. ; Requisites of
worthy administration, 188
sqq. ; Requisites of valid re-
ception, 191 sqq.; Requisites
of worthy reception, 200 sqq. ;
Baptism, 206 sqq. ; Confirma-
tion, 276 sqq.

Sacramentum, 5 sqq. ; naturae,
20 sqq. ; — • et res, 82 sqq.,
200 sqq. ; Validum et in-
forme, 193.

Sacrilege, 188, 189 sq., 200 sq.

Sanctifying Grace conferred by
the Sacraments, 67 sqq., 228
sq., 300 sqq.

Sardinia, 308, 31^.

INDEX

327

Schatzler, 152.

Scheeben, 159.

Schell, 296, 301.

Scotists, 24, 26, 63, 64, 85, 87,
181, 294, 310.

Scotus, 24, 64, 75, 85, I37» 144,
154, 181, 211.

Seal of the Spirit, 78.

Sep toil scriitinia, 241.

Septenary number of the Sac-
raments, 32 sqq., 44 sqq., 51

sqq., 133-

Sergius, Pope, 262.

Serry, 183.

Seven, The number, 32 sqq., 44
sqq., 51 sqq., 133-

Sign of the Cross, as a Sacra-
ment, 42.

Signs, 12 sqq., 124, 139.

Signum, Threefold, 12 sqq.; 89
.sqq., 303-

Silas, 218.

Si mar, 306.

Simon Maguis, 246, 281.

Simon of Thessalonica, 40.

Simulation, 190.

Sin, 30, 116, 231 sq.

Socinians, 122, 123, 208, 213.

Solemn Baptism, 254 sqq.

Soto, Dominicus, 2>7, 60, 118,
144, 295.

Sphragis, 79, 89, 235, 276, 297.

Sponsors, 270.

Staerk, 288.

Stanislaus Kostka, St., 163.

Status viae, 266 sq.

Stephen I, 172, 261, 316.

Stephen, St., 285.

Suarez, 20, 23, 49, 68, 72, 84,
86, 14s, 152, 15s, 156, 165, 210,

295. 309, 310, 2U-
Sylvester I, 285.
Sylvester Pricrias, 183.

Talmudism, 114 sq.

Tapper, 292.

Tarsus, Council of (1177), 294.

Tepe, 152.

Tertullian, 6, 8, 52, 112, 129,

131, 132, 168, 208 sq., 215, 217,
218, 222, 231, 233, 234, 240,
250, 256, 260, 263, 284, 285,
289.

Testamentum D. N. lesu
Christi, 290 sq.

Theodotus the Valentinian, 235.

Theophilus of Antioch, St., 286.

Thomas of Argentina, 164.

Thomas, St., i, 15, 16, 18, 19,
21, 22,, 26, 27, 28, 29, 2,7, 46,
61, 64, 68, 69, 74, 81, 85, 87,
88, 89, 91, 106, 113, 117, 119,
134, 151, 157 sq., 163, 164, 181,
ig8, 210, 220, 223, 231, 234,
252, 256, 264, 289, 29s, 309.

Thomists, 22, 69, 72, 87 sq., 145,
152, 156, 158, 181, 294, 310.

Toletus, 109.

Tournely, 23, 25, 152,

Tree of Life, 18, 19.

Trent, Council of, 2, 10, Z"^, 2,7>
38, 41, 43, 62, 67, 68, 70, 71,
72, 77, 81, 84, 88, 94, 97, loi,
102 sq., 109, III, 122, 123 sq.,
125, 132, 134, 135, 136, 138
sq., 164, 167, 171, 178, 185 sq.,
193, 196, 206, 213, 217, 223,
228, 230, 232, 234, 238, 242,
243, 244, 261, 268, 269, 273,
276, 279, 290, 296, 304, 307,
310, 312.

Trinity, 91 sq., 183, 221 sq., 223,
225, 241, 248, 298.

Tritheism, 225, 227.

Trombelli, 310.

Trullan Council (692), 297.

Tubingen, 39.

Unbelievers, Baptism adminis-
tered by, 262 sq.

Unworthiness, Personal, Does
not render a Sacrament in-
valid, 193 ; but is sacrilegious,
200 sq.

Urban II, 263.

Valentinian II, 246.

328

INDEX

Validity, Conditions of, 162

sqq.
Vartanus, 42.

Vasquez, 23, 25, 63, 104, 152.
Velasquez, 152.
Verhum concionale, 138.
Verina, 272.

Vincent of Lerins, 173.
Viva, 68, 145.
Votum sacramcnti, 248, 304.
Vow, Baptismal, 273 sqq.

Waldenses, 35, 167, 184, 278.
Water, Baptismal, 126, 130, 137,

213 sqq.
Wiclif, 36, 38, 7(>, 167.
Wiclifites, 167, 278.

William of Auxerre, 62, 134,
iSi.

William of Champeaux, 34.

Womb, Baptismal font com-
pared to, 130 sq., 216, 235;
Child baptized in the ma-
ternal, 266.

Women, Baptism administered
by, 263 sq.

YSAMBERT, 152.

Zachaeus, 244.
Zachary, Pope, 226.
Zwingli, 2Z, 122, 123.

BX 2200 .P613 1915 v.l SMC

Pohle, Joseph,

The sacraments 47159287

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